2. 1,3. 1,2
   T.S. ABDULKADIR, A.B. SULYMAN, A.A. MOHAMMED, A.S. AREMU, A.W. SALAMI,
1. M. SURAJUDEEN, O.J. IJI, O.O. OLOFINTOYE, A.A. AFOLABI

A REVIEW OF SUSTAINABLE HYDROPOWER GENERATION IN NIGERIA

Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, NIGERIA
2.
National Centre for Hydropower Research and Development, University of Ilorin, KM 18, Ilorin–Ajase–Ipo Road, Opposite ARMTI, Ilorin, Kwara State, NIGERIA

National Centre for Hydropower Research and Development, University of Ilorin, KM 18, Ilorin–Ajase–Ipo Road, Opposite ARMTI, Ilorin, Kwara State, NIGERIA
3.
Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority, Ilorin, Kwara State, NIGERIA

Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority, Ilorin, Kwara State, NIGERIA
4.
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, NIGERIA

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, NIGERIA

Abstract: Electricity is the core of every nation’s socioeconomic development. Nigeria depends heavily on fossil fuel for electricity generation due to the vast deposits of crude
oil and natural gas in the country. Nevertheless, the vast deposit of crude oil, Nigeria still generates less than 4000 MW of electricity with per capita consumption of about 0.03
kW. Hydropower, being one of the available sources of energy, can be transported instantaneously and pollution free to the consumers making it attractive as compared to
other forms of energy. Hence, the authors reviewed the available literatures on hydropower generation to evaluate its sustainability in Nigeria context. The literature search
was made as wide as possible to capture all relevant data required. The searches covered databases specific to scholarly articles on hydropower generation sustainability. From
the studies, it is shown that the potentials of hydropower generation in Nigeria if fully exploited can significantly improve the energy mix of the country that would sustainably
serve its population.
Keywords: Energy, Hydropower generation, Sustainability, Small hydropower

Keywords: Energy, Hydropower generation, Sustainability, Small hydropower

INTRODUCTION
Energy is one commodity on which the provision of goods Meanwhile, most Nigeria electrical power stations

the major part of Nigeria’s energy consumption mix.
Energy is one commodity on which the provision of goods Meanwhile, most Nigeria electrical power stations
and services depend. Its availability and optimal utilization currently are either thermal or hydropower. With the cost
are economic indices to measure countries’ of oil being uncertain, alternative energy options need to
socioeconomic development. Recent researches have be assessed and development plans expedited to enable
linked national standard of living to energy consumption a broad–based infrastructure. Electricity supply in the
showing that developed countries consume more energy country has been through centralized generating station
than the developing countries. For the time immemorial, with high capacities. The supply was about 80% of the
Nigeria is faced with acute shortage of power supply to its total electricity consumption in the country with about
populace. The effect of epileptic power supply is 6000 MW installed capacity from three large hydropower
conspicuous in the manufacturing sector where about stations: Shiroro, Jebba and Kainji along with other five
80% of factories are moribund. Statistically, the combined thermal power stations having maximum suppressed
installed capacity of power stations in Nigeria is far below demand of about 3,500 MW.
the country’s electricity demand, resulting in epileptic The demand for electricity in Nigeria is shared between
supply of electricity. The situation is compounded by the residential, industrial, commercial/street lighting in the
failure of the existing power stations to operate at its proportions of 50:30:20 (Ismaila, 2017). It’s estimated that
installed capacity (Batalla et al., 2004; Ajibola et al., 2018; 2 to 5% of the capacity of the national grid is contributed
Akhator et al., 2019). The sporadic supply of power in by private sector – Independent Power Producer (IPP).
Nigeria affects every sphere of human endeavors. The Private producers such as Nigerian Electricity Supply
catastrophic effects range from all forms of domestic Corporation (NESCO), Shell, AES–Lagos, Bayelsa State gas
discomfort to national humiliation. According to Ibe and turbine and Ajaokuta Steel Company sell power to Power
Okedu (2015), maintaining a reliable electric power Holding Company of Nigeria Plc (PHCN) for transmission
generation is therefore a very important issue in power and distribution to consumers. The other balance of
system design and operation. Nigeria, being in the power demand is being supplied by private generating
threshold of industrial development, has high energy sets.
demand. The country is endowed with rich reserves of The construction of the hydro plants often involves

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ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin o f En gineerin g To me XVI \[2023\] \| Fascic ule 4 \[October – DECEM BER\]

immediate environment. The impact may be positive that Notwithstanding, Nigeria generates less than 4000 MW of are useful to the environment or negative that are electricity with per capita consumption of 0.03 kW (Ezirim hazardous to the environment. The effective et al., 2016). This is the present situation despite the fact management of these impacts to ensure a conducive, that the installed total capacity to generate electricity as balance and sustainable environment is highly desirable. far back as 1999 was put at 11,756 MW (Oparaku, 2007). These impacts can be hydrological, ecological, social, Ohunakin (2010) highlighted that hydropower was the economic, cultural, meteorological or human health only source of electrical power in Nigeria before the impacts. Sule and Salami (2013) reported that, the discovery of crude oil. The shift in attention to fossil fuels environmental ramifications associated with electricity due to the vast deposit of fossil fuel in the country led to generation, transmission and distribution have become of the decay in the hydropower sector development. There great importance in power systems planning, design and is a growing concern that countries should reduce their operations. In every technologically advanced countries of dependence on fossil fuels for electricity generation and the world, public electricity distribution and supply look to other cleaner technologies. Three major factors dominates the industrial scene in the scale of its capital that improve the attractiveness of renewable energy investment requirements, huge tonnage of primary fuel it sources, including hydropower: a growing global demand consumes and its rapid growing demands for large, for electricity, the likely increase in fossil fuel prices, and complex and technically sophisticated plants and the need for clean energy sources. Hydropower equipment. production is thus expected to increase threefold over Globally, the most widely used form of renewable energy the next 100 years (Sambo, 2010). Therefore, the likely that accounts for 16% of world electricity consumption obstacles to the sustainable hydropower generation such and 3,427 terawatt–hours of electricity production is as climate change, sediment impact, dam and design hydroelectric energy (Samadi–Boroujen, 2012; Olukanni et capacities, are needed to be reviewed holistically. The aim _al., 2016). Hydropower generating stations generally of this study is to review published studies on sustainable_ depend on inflow of water and available net head (Okoro hydropower generation in Nigeria with a focus on major and Chikuni, 2010; Abdulkadir et al., 2012). It is a flexible hydropower dams in Nigeria. source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Construction activities on the first hydropower station in The current trend in hydropower system operations focus Nigeria commenced in 1964 at Kainji on River Niger. The on multiple uses of water in order to maximize human dam was commissioned in 1968 with an installed capacity needs and demands connected to economic and social of 320 MW, and by 1978, the station had 8 plants with activities of the community. Hydropower generation was total capacity of 760 MW. Later on, the tail water from estimated to be about 35.6% of the Nigeria’s electricity Kainji dam was utilized to generate 540 MW at Jebba sources with gas estimated at 39.8% and oil at 24.8% dam, 97 km downstream of Kainji dam. The third Hydro– (Obadote, 2009). However, a range of factors limit Electric Power (HEP) station, the Shiroro dam in Niger hydropower potential which includes river discharge and State was commissioned in 1990 with an installed capacity its variation, landscape topography and environmental of 600 MW bringing the total installed capacity of HEP in considerations, technical capacity, turbine design, Nigeria to 1900 MW. There are a number of small limitations of the electrical transmission system, technical hydropower stations, such as 3 MW plant in Bagel, 8 MW flaws and functionality of the energy market (Worman, plant in Kura and 8 MW in Lere, 2 MW Station at Kwall fall

2012). Studies have shown that climate change may affect on N’Gell River (River Kaduna) and 8 MW station at Kurra water resources which lead to significant variation of the fall. The cumulative capacity of hydropower stations potential for hydropower (Fahmy et al., 1994; Nogueria et (small and large) is about 2000 MW. This accounts for 32% _al., 2008; Bosona and Gebresenbet, 2010)._ of the combined installed capacity of hydro, thermal and The African continent is endowed with enormous gas power stations in Nigeria (Zarma, 2006). The hydropower potential that needs to be harnessed. development of 2500 MW Mambilla hydropower station is Despite this huge potential which is enough to meet all in progress and the country still has potential for about the electricity needs of the continent, only a small fraction 6000 MW hydropower station. Nigeria has just developed has been exploited. This could be due to the major 23% of her feasible hydropower. This is very low compared technical, financial and environmental challenges that to other African countries such as Lesotho which has need to be overcome (Sambo, 2010). Hydropower developed 50% of her hydropower potential; Burkina Faso currently makes about 20% contribution to the global developed 46%, while Kenya has developed 34% of her electricity supply, second to fossil fuel. Nigeria depends hydropower potential (Zarma, 2006; Jimoh, 2009). heavily on fossil fuel for electricity generation due to the vast deposits of crude oil and natural gas in the country.

## 126 \| Fascic ule

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\[Image: Im0\]
▓ Potential Hydropower Sites in Nigeria Nigeria with the scheme operated in only three States of
The power generation in Nigeria has been overwhelmed the country (Ohunaki et al., 2011). If well deployed, SHP
with various problems impeding its successful can be most affordable and accessible option to provide
implementation. Nigeria has considerable hydro potential off–grid electricity services especially in rural communities
sources exemplified by her large rivers, small rivers and (Akorede et al., 2017). The Nigerian Electricity Supply
streams. Nigerian rivers are distributed all over the Company (NESCO) was able to supply electricity to the old
country with potential sites for hydropower scheme Benue–Plateau area from the mid–forties to the eighties
which can serve the urban, rural and isolated with hydropower from the Kurra falls. Small hydro power
communities. Nigeria hydropower currently accounts for plants are defined and classified as micro, mini or small.
about 32% of the total installed commercial electric power The definition of SHP and classification of capacity are

about 32% of the total installed commercial electric power The definition of SHP and classification of capacity are
capacity. The overall large–scale potential (exploitable) is dynamic and determined by indigenous development and
in excess of 11,000 MW. An estimation of rivers Kaduna, growth in economy.
Benue and Cross River at Shiroro, Makurdi and Ikom Indigenous development and growth in different
indicates that a total capacity of about 4,650 MW is countries economy has been the litmus test for definition
available, while the estimate for the river Mambillla and classification of SHP capacity. Hence, most countries
Plateau is put at about 2,330 MW. A large number of have different definitions and classifications for SHP
untapped hydropower potential of about 11,895 MW (Essan, 2007). In Nigeria, SHP is defined as hydropower
(Table 1) has been identified in various locations across station capable of generating up to 10 MW capacity as
the country (Ismaila, 2017).
Table 1: Hydropower potential locations and their capacities in Nigeria

about 32% of the total installed commercial electric power The definition of SHP and classification of capacity are
capacity. The overall large–scale potential (exploitable) is dynamic and determined by indigenous development and
in excess of 11,000 MW. An estimation of rivers Kaduna, growth in economy.
Benue and Cross River at Shiroro, Makurdi and Ikom Indigenous development and growth in different
indicates that a total capacity of about 4,650 MW is countries economy has been the litmus test for definition
available, while the estimate for the river Mambillla and classification of SHP capacity. Hence, most countries
Plateau is put at about 2,330 MW. A large number of have different definitions and classifications for SHP
untapped hydropower potential of about 11,895 MW (Essan, 2007). In Nigeria, SHP is defined as hydropower
(Table 1) has been identified in various locations across station capable of generating up to 10 MW capacity as
shown in Table 2. Plants with capacity up to 1 MW are
Table 1: Hydropower potential locations and their capacities in Nigeria considered as mini–hydropower, while micro–hydropower

Table 1: Hydropower potential locations and their capacities in Nigeria
Location River State Potential Capacity (MW)

(Source: Ismaila 2017; Akorede et al., 2017)
▓ Small Hydropower Potential of Nigeria

| Location | River | State | Potential Capacity(MW) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Mambilla | Danga | Taraba | 3960 |
| Lokoja | Niger | Kogi | 1950 |
| Makurdi | Benue | Benue | 1060 |
| Onitsha | Niger | Anambra | 1050 |
| Ikom | Cross | Cross River | 730 |
| Zungeru I | Kaduna | Niger | 500 |
| Zungeru II | Kaduna | Niger | 450 |
| Yola | Benue | Adamawa | 360 |
| Gurara | Gurara | Niger | 300 |
| Katsina Ala | Katsina Ala | Benue | 260 |
| Beli SE | Taraba | Kano | 240 |
| Donka | Niger | Adamawa | 225 |
| Afikpo | Cross | Ebonyi | 180 |
| Garin Dali | Taraba | Taraba | 135 |
| Gembu | Dongo | Taraba | 130 |
| Sarkin-Danko | Suntai | Taraba | 45 |
| Kiri | Gongola | Adamawa | 40 |
| Oudi | Mada | Benue | 40 |
| Richa I | Mosari | Nassarawa | 35 |
| Gwaram | Jama'are | Adamawa | 30 |
| Ifon | Osse | Ondo | 30 |
| Kashimbila | KatsinaAla | Benue | 30 |
| Korubo | Gongola | Adamawa | 25 |
| Kura I | Sanga | Kano | 15 |
| Richa II | Dafo | Kano | 25 |
| Mistakuku | Kurra | Plateau | 20 |
| Kura II | Sanga | Kano | 25 |
| Kafanchan | Kongun | Kaduna | 5 |
| Total |  |  | 11895 |

▓ Small Hydropower Potential of Nigeria
Small hydropower is considered a viable solution to the

▓ Small Hydropower Potential of Nigeria
Small hydropower is considered a viable solution to the
power challenges in Nigeria. Ohunakin et al. (2010) opined
that Small Hydropower Potential (SHP) has been in
existence in Nigeria since 1923 i.e., 45 years before the
commissioning of the country’s first large hydropower in
Kainji. However, SHP technology is still at its infancy in
\[Image: Im1\]

\[Image: Im0\]
Nigeria with the scheme operated in only three States of
The power generation in Nigeria has been overwhelmed the country (Ohunaki et al., 2011). If well deployed, SHP
with various problems impeding its successful can be most affordable and accessible option to provide
implementation. Nigeria has considerable hydro potential off–grid electricity services especially in rural communities
sources exemplified by her large rivers, small rivers and (Akorede et al., 2017). The Nigerian Electricity Supply
streams. Nigerian rivers are distributed all over the Company (NESCO) was able to supply electricity to the old
country with potential sites for hydropower scheme Benue–Plateau area from the mid–forties to the eighties
which can serve the urban, rural and isolated with hydropower from the Kurra falls. Small hydro power
communities. Nigeria hydropower currently accounts for plants are defined and classified as micro, mini or small.
about 32% of the total installed commercial electric power The definition of SHP and classification of capacity are
capacity. The overall large–scale potential (exploitable) is dynamic and determined by indigenous development and
in excess of 11,000 MW. An estimation of rivers Kaduna, growth in economy.
Benue and Cross River at Shiroro, Makurdi and Ikom Indigenous development and growth in different

\[Image: Im0\]
Nigeria with the scheme operated in only three States of
The power generation in Nigeria has been overwhelmed the country (Ohunaki et al., 2011). If well deployed, SHP
can be most affordable and accessible option to provide
implementation. Nigeria has considerable hydro potential off–grid electricity services especially in rural communities
sources exemplified by her large rivers, small rivers and (Akorede et al., 2017). The Nigerian Electricity Supply
streams. Nigerian rivers are distributed all over the Company (NESCO) was able to supply electricity to the old
country with potential sites for hydropower scheme Benue–Plateau area from the mid–forties to the eighties
with hydropower from the Kurra falls. Small hydro power
communities. Nigeria hydropower currently accounts for plants are defined and classified as micro, mini or small.
about 32% of the total installed commercial electric power The definition of SHP and classification of capacity are
capacity. The overall large–scale potential (exploitable) is dynamic and determined by indigenous development and
in excess of 11,000 MW. An estimation of rivers Kaduna, growth in economy.
Benue and Cross River at Shiroro, Makurdi and Ikom Indigenous development and growth in different

Benue and Cross River at Shiroro, Makurdi and Ikom Indigenous development and growth in different
indicates that a total capacity of about 4,650 MW is countries economy has been the litmus test for definition
available, while the estimate for the river Mambillla and classification of SHP capacity. Hence, most countries
Plateau is put at about 2,330 MW. A large number of have different definitions and classifications for SHP
untapped hydropower potential of about 11,895 MW (Essan, 2007). In Nigeria, SHP is defined as hydropower
(Table 1) has been identified in various locations across station capable of generating up to 10 MW capacity as
shown in Table 2. Plants with capacity up to 1 MW are
considered as mini–hydropower, while micro–hydropower
has capacity of up to 500 kW (Aliyu et al., 2015).
Osokoya et al. (2013) recommended for Nigeria several

has capacity of up to 500 kW (Aliyu et al., 2015).
Osokoya et al. (2013) recommended for Nigeria several
units of small hydropower stations because of its
affordability, maintainability, reduction in power losses
through long transmission lines and avoidance of
bureaucracy in government since they would be managed
by smaller government units, i.e., the local government.
Development of small hydropower projects would
significantly reduce poverty and enhance quality of life in
the communities they serve. Muhammadu and Usman
(2020) highlighted factors affecting developments in the
small hydropower sector, and efforts made to ensure
capacity building for renewable energy, stimulation of the
private sector, developing the markets for small
hydropower, obtaining the necessary finance for small
hydropower projects and the assistance of multilateral
institutions in advancing small hydropower in the North
central Nigeria.
Table 2: Classification of SHP in selected country and Organization

Table 2: Classification of SHP in selected country and Organization
Country/ Organization Micro (kW) Mini (kW) Small (kW)

| Country/Organization | Micro(kW) | Mini(kW) | Small(kW) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Canada | Nil | <1,000 | 1001-1,500 |
| China | <100 | 101-500 | 501-25,000 |
| ESHA | Nil | Nil | <15,000 |
| France | <500 | 501-2,000 | Nil |
| IN-SHIP | <100 | 101-500 | 501-10,000 |
| India | <100 | <2,000 | Nil |
| Japan | Nil | Nil | <10,000 |
| Philippines | Nil | 51-500 | <15,000 |
| New Zealand | Nil | <10,000 | <50,000 |
| Nigeria | ≤500 | 501-1,000 | 1001-10,000 |
| Sweden | Nil | Nil | 101-15,000 |
| UNIDO | <100 | 101-2,000 | 2,001-10,000 |
| United Kingdom | <1000 | Nil | Nil |
| USA | <500 | 501-2,000 | <15,000 |
| Zimbabwe | 5-500 | 501-5,000 | Nil |

* * *

\[Image: Im1\]
According to Energy commission of Nigeria (ECN, 2005), mutually exclusive, is to conduct an in–depth risk analysis
there was a survey which were carried out in 1980 to of climate change impacts on hydropower generation and
assessed SHP potentials in 277 locations (Table 3). The prepare emergency plan for climate extremes. Changes in
result shows that there are total potentials of around mean climate impact caused by global warming on
734.3 MW in the surveyed locations. So far, about eight hydropower are relatively limited and easier to be
SHP stations (Table 4) with aggregate capacity of 37.0 controlled, but the extreme weather events such as
MW have been installed in Nigeria by private companies floods and drought will seriously affect the production,
and the government.
Table 3: SHP Surveyed States in Nigeria

Table 3: SHP Surveyed States in Nigeria
River Basin Total sites Total capacity (MW)

| State(Pre 1980) | River Basin | Total sites | Total capacity(MW) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sokoto | Sokoto-Rima | 22 | 30.6 |
| Katsina | Sokoto-Rima | 11 | 8.0 |
| Niger | Niger | 30 | 117.6 |
| Kaduna | Niger | 19 | 59.2 |
| Kwara | Niger | 12 | 38.8 |
| Kano | Hadeija-Jamaare | 28 | 46.2 |
| Borno | Chad | 28 | 20.8 |
| Bauchi | Upper Benue | 20 | 42.6 |
| Gongola | Upper Benue | 38 | 162.7 |
| Plateau | Lower Benue | 32 | 110.4 |
| Benue | Lower Benue | 19 | 69.2 |
| Rivers | Cross River | 18 | 258.1 |
| Total |  | 277 | 734.2 |

(ECN, 2005)
Table 4: Existing Small Hydropower schemed in Nigeria

Table 4: Existing Small Hydropower schemed in Nigeria
River State Installed Capacity (MW)

| S/No | River | State | Installed Capacity(MW) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Bagel I | Plateau | 1 |
| 2 | Bagel II | Plateau | 2 |
| 3 | Kurra | Plateau | 8 |
| 4 | Lere I | Plateau | 4 |
| 5 | Lere II | Plateau | 4 |
| 6 | \*Bakalor | Sokoto | 3 |
| 7 | \*Tiger | Kano | 6 |
| 8 | \*Oyan | Ogun | 9 |

- Needs rehabilitation
  ▓ Optimizing Hydropower Operation and Management

▓ Optimizing Hydropower Operation and Management
Special attention should be devoted to adaptation power plants attractive to meet the increasing need to
measures to cope with the varied climate environment. supply electricity (Schwailer, 1996). Construction costs for
Two prime options are addressed on operation and new hydropower projects in most countries including
management of hydropower generation to adapt climate Nigeria are usually less than US $2 million/MW for large
change. The first option is to enhance the optimal scale schemes (> 300 MW), and US $2 to US $4
operation of cascade hydropower stations or single million/MW for small
hydropower station with reservoir. Scheduling MW) (IEA, 2014). A typical classification of hydropower
optimization could reduce the water spill with available scheme is presented in Table 5. It is important to note
capacity and storage. Although the dry scenario examined that the initial investment needs for particular projects
in that study had 20% less runoff than the base historical must be studied individually owing to the unique na
hydrology, system–wide, revenues decrease by less than each hydropower project.
14% through optimally re–operating storage and
generation facilities within existing capacities. Scheduling

▓ Optimizing Hydropower Operation and Management
between 0.03 and 0.06 cents per kWh. This makes these
Special attention should be devoted to adaptation power plants attractive to meet the increasing need to
measures to cope with the varied climate environment. supply electricity (Schwailer, 1996). Construction costs for
Two prime options are addressed on operation and new hydropower projects in most countries including
management of hydropower generation to adapt climate Nigeria are usually less than US $2 million/MW for large
change. The first option is to enhance the optimal scale schemes (> 300 MW), and US $2 to US $4
operation of cascade hydropower stations or single million/MW for small
hydropower station with reservoir. Scheduling MW) (IEA, 2014). A typical classification of hydropower
optimization could reduce the water spill with available scheme is presented in Table 5. It is important to note
capacity and storage. Although the dry scenario examined that the initial investment needs for particular projects
in that study had 20% less runoff than the base historical must be studied individually owing to the unique na
hydrology, system–wide, revenues decrease by less than each hydropower project.
re–operating storage and
generation facilities within existing capacities. Scheduling

generation facilities within existing capacities. Scheduling
optimization of hydropower station on a river or basin, is
to make full use of water resource at all levels. It can also
adjust and compensate for the effects on each single
station due to inter annual climate variability during the
year. In this case, the most important thing is to optimize
the hydropower operation pattern to maximize the
revenue with limited capacity and available ancillary
facilities (Zhang et al., 2012). The second option, and not
\[Image: Im0\]

\[Image: Im1\]
According to Energy commission of Nigeria (ECN, 2005), mutually exclusive, is to conduct an in–depth risk analysis

According to Energy commission of Nigeria (ECN, 2005), mutually exclusive, is to conduct an in–depth risk analysis
there was a survey which were carried out in 1980 to of climate change impacts on hydropower generation and
assessed SHP potentials in 277 locations (Table 3). The prepare emergency plan for climate extremes. Changes in

there was a survey which were carried out in 1980 to of climate change impacts on hydropower generation and
assessed SHP potentials in 277 locations (Table 3). The prepare emergency plan for climate extremes. Changes in
result shows that there are total potentials of around mean climate impact caused by global warming on
734.3 MW in the surveyed locations. So far, about eight hydropower are relatively limited and easier to be
SHP stations (Table 4) with aggregate capacity of 37.0 controlled, but the extreme weather events such as
MW have been installed in Nigeria by private companies floods and drought will seriously affect the production,
transmission and distribution of hydropower generation.
The frequency and intensity of regional extreme weather

there was a survey which were carried out in 1980 to of climate change impacts on hydropower generation and
assessed SHP potentials in 277 locations (Table 3). The prepare emergency plan for climate extremes. Changes in
result shows that there are total potentials of around mean climate impact caused by global warming on
734.3 MW in the surveyed locations. So far, about eight hydropower are relatively limited and easier to be
SHP stations (Table 4) with aggregate capacity of 37.0 controlled, but the extreme weather events such as
MW have been installed in Nigeria by private companies floods and drought will seriously affect the production,
transmission and distribution of hydropower generation.
The frequency and intensity of regional extreme weather

The frequency and intensity of regional extreme weather
caused by climate change is clearly evident. This places
potentially severe stress and high risk on hydropower

potentially severe stress and high risk on hydropower
systems. Therefore, it is critically significant for
hydropower planners and decision–makers to analyze the
potential risk of climate extreme events during the
operation. Based on hydrological model forecasts and
predictions, emergency plans under different extreme
conditions should be established. By optimizing power
generation, operation and management, the more
efficient hydropower stations could not only increase their
generation revenue but also play a significant socio–
economic role for society.
▓ Cost Associated with Hydropower

potentially severe stress and high risk on hydropower
systems. Therefore, it is critically significant for
hydropower planners and decision–makers to analyze the
potential risk of climate extreme events during the
operation. Based on hydrological model forecasts and
predictions, emergency plans under different extreme
conditions should be established. By optimizing power
generation, operation and management, the more
efficient hydropower stations could not only increase their
generation revenue but also play a significant socio–

▓ Cost Associated with Hydropower
The costs associated with developing hydropower are

▓ Cost Associated with Hydropower
The costs associated with developing hydropower are
very site – specific. Meeting environmental issues and the
need to design the power plant to maximize its output
vary from area to area. However, compared to other
depletable and non – depletable energy sources,
hydropower is among the least expensive of all the energy
resources. Although the initial costs to develo p and
construct these facilities are not small, they have lower
maintenance and operation costs. Taken together, the
cost of electricity from hydroelectric plants ranges
between 0.03 and 0.06 cents per kWh. This makes these
Special attention should be devoted to adaptation power plants attractive to meet the increasing need to
measures to cope with the varied climate environment. supply electricity (Schwailer, 1996). Construction costs for
Two prime options are addressed on operation and new hydropower projects in most countries including
management of hydropower generation to adapt climate Nigeria are usually less than US $2 million/MW for large
change. The first option is to enhance the optimal scale schemes (> 300 MW), and US $2 to US $4
operation of cascade hydropower stations or single million/MW for small
– and medium– scale schemes (<300
hydropower station with reservoir. Scheduling MW) (IEA, 2014). A typical classification of hydropower
optimization could reduce the water spill with available scheme is presented in Table 5. It is important to note
capacity and storage. Although the dry scenario examined that the initial investment needs for particular projects
in that study had 20% less runoff than the base historical must be studied individually owing to the unique na
ture of
hydrology, system–wide, revenues decrease by less than each hydropower project.
re–operating storage and
Table 5: Classification of cost associated with hydropower schemes

Table 5: Classification of cost associated with hydropower schemes
Output Investment costs

| Category | Output(MW) | Storage | Power use | Investment costs(US$ millions/MW) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Small | <10 | Run of river | Base load | 2 to 4 |
| Medium | 10 to100 | Run of river | Base load | 2 to 3 |
| Medium | 100 to300 | Dam and reservoir | Base loadand peak | 2 to 3 |
| Large | >300 | Dam and reservoir | Base loadand peak | <2 |

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ACTA TECHNICA CORVINIENSIS – Bulletin o f En gineerin g To me XVI \[2023\] \| Fascic ule 4 \[October – DECEM BER\]

▓ Social and Environmental Costs of SHP Plants however, they have lower maintenance and operation Ohunakin (2010a) emphasized that social and costs. The cost of electricity from hydroelectric plants environmental costs of hydropower are more prevalent ranges between 0.03 and 0.06 cents per kilowatt.hr. for large–dam projects. Small–scale hydro projects have Construction costs for new hydropower projects in most the least social and environmental effects. Dudhani et al. countries including Nigeria are usually less than US $2 (2006) expressed that SHP projects are generally million/MW for large scale schemes (> 300 MW), and US considered to be more environmentally favorable than $2 to US $4 million/MW for small– and medium–scale both large hydro and fossil fuel powered plants because schemes (<300 MW). they do not involve serious deforestation, rehabilitation Several factors such as sedimentation, climate changes and submergence. Meanwhile, some carbon dioxide is and operation and maintenance of the hydropower can produced during manufacture and construction of the affect the sustainable generation of hydropower in project. This is a tiny fraction of the operating emissions of Nigeria. Sedimentation affects hydropower generation equivalent fossil–fuel electricity generation. Small dams due to a loss of reservoir storage or by damaging the and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form mechanical components of the facilities. Sediment continuing hazards even after they have been deposited in reservoirs may also present additional and decommissioned. For example, the Small Kelly Barnes compounding structural loads to a hydropower dam and Dam failed in 1967, causing 39 deaths with the Toccoa may also become liquefied under dynamic loading from an Flood, ten years after its power plant was earthquake. Methods of managing sediment at decommissioned in 1957. hydropower facilities fall under three general categories: ▓ Renewable Energy Policy on Hydropower those that divert sediment around or through the In order to benefit from the huge SHP potentials in reservoir, those that remove deposited sediments, and Nigeria, a vibrant renewable energy portfolio standard has those that minimize the amount of sediment reaching the to be formulated along the following lines as contained in facility. A variety of sediment management strategies (Sambo, 2007). These policies include: have been employed at facilities in Nigeria, with many  nation shall fully harness the hydropower potential successful implementations documented. Appropriate available in the country for electricity generation. sediment management at hydropower facilities can be  nation shall pay particular attention to the achieved through consideration of sediment concerns development of the mini and micro hydropower during all phases of the project, design, construction and schemes. operation.  exploitation of the hydro resources shall be done in The operation and maintenance costs are relatively low environmentally sustainable manner. for hydropower plants compared to other forms of power  private sector and indigenous participation in generation. However, many low to middle income hydropower development shall be actively and countries such as Nigeria struggle to meet standard generously promoted. maintenance schedules through lack of resources which DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION then leads to loss of performance. The required operation This paper presented a critical review of the status of and maintenance varies widely, according to the scheme’s sustainable hydropower generation in Nigeria, and the location, capacity factor, generation strategy, whether potential to utilize them in meeting the current energy the station is manned or unmanned, whether it is a crisis facing the country. The potentials of small storage or run of river scheme, the annual production, the hydropower plants in Nigeria have been explored and number of starts and stops, as well as numerous other confirmed to be very huge considering the fact that factors. Underfunded and neglected operation and experts had assessed many sites in the country to have maintenance reduces power output and shortens the life favourable conditions for SHP development. It has been of the plants. In systems with adequate spare capacity shown that the exploitation of SHP potentials in twelve outages of plant components can be planned, for their states could raise the available megawatts by more than inspection and, if necessary, repair and replacement 20 percent and improve the energy mix in Nigeria. Further, should be done to improve the performances of the recommendations of Osokoya et al. (2013) could be hydropower. helpful in enhancing the small hydropower generation in It is very important to harness all the hydropower Nigeria. potential in Nigeria sustainably in order to boost the The costs associated with developing hydropower are socio–economic development of the country. The very site–specific base on environmental situation and the selection, design, construction and operation of need to design the power plant. Although, the initial costs hydropower projects need to take into account it to develop and construct these facilities are not small, environmental and social impacts in a way that is sympathetic to the environment and society. The

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\[Image: Im1\]
government should be committed to promote renewable \[7\]
forms of energy, especially the hydropower projects
where it is feasible and practicable. In the rural area in the
country where the livelihoods of people are underpinned \[8\]
by the presence of the healthy and diverse ecosystems
that provide them with sustenance, the issue of
sustainability is of paramount important.
Also, there can be no sustainable development without

Also, there can be no sustainable development without
the demonstration of sound and equitable distribution of \[10\]
economic benefits. For this reason, economic
considerations are central in the decision–making
\[11\]
processes associated with hydropower projects. The
efficient use of economic resources requires that the best
options are selected and that the alternatives have been
\[12\]
carefully evaluated. Furthermore, there are no hidden and
unforeseen costs that could emerge in the future.
Demand growth has been rapid and the availability of
funds and grants is not keeping pace with the increasing \[13\]
capital requirements of the sector.
Development of Nigeria energy space will result in

capital requirements of the sector.
Development of Nigeria energy space will result in
industrialization and improved standard of living if energy \[14\]
demands for various sectors of the economic is met.
Igweonu and Joshua, (2012) emphasized that SHP
potentials in Nigeria is massive considering the numerous \[15\]
sites assessed and certified by experts. Extensive review
of hydropower generation in Nigeria proves not only to be \[16\]
a renewable source but also sustainable. However, energy
demand is yet to be met thereby creating a vacuum for
development of sustainable energy in Nigeria. It can be \[17\]
concluded that SHP systems would alleviate the
unavailability of power and it could be enhanced by
optimizing their design, construction and operation \[18\]
techniques. It is recommended that efforts and policy are
required to encourage and develop the technical skills
\[19\]
needed for the investors to be active in SHP.
References
\[20\]
\[1\] Abdulkadir, T.S.; Sule, B.F. and Salami, A.W. Application of Artificial Neural

\[2\] Ajibola, O.O.E.; Ajala, O.S.; Akanmu, J.O. and Balogun, O.J. Improvement of
hydroelectric power generation using pumped storage system, Nigerian
Journal of Technology, 37(1), 191–199, 2018.
\[3\] Akhator, P.E.; Obanor, A.I. and Sadjere, E.G. Electricity situation and potential
development in Nigeria using off–grid green energy solutions, Journal of
Applied Sciences and Environmental Management 23(3), 527–537, 2019.
\[4\] Akorede, M.F.; Ibrahim, O.; Amuda, S.A.; Otuoze, A.O. and Olufeagba, B.J.

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