OVERCOMING THE ENERGY CRISIS IN NIGERIA: HAS THE
POWER SECTOR REFORM IMPROVED ELECTRICITY
GENERATION IN NIGERIA, 2013-2023

Anthony Chinonso Ajah, Hillary Obike and Okorie Albert, Ph.D
Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Department of Government and Public Administration, Abia State University , Uturu

Department of Government and Public Administration, Abia State University , Uturu
Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Abstract: The paper argues that the privatisation of the power generation companies has enhanced electricity generation

Abstract: The paper argues that the privatisation of the power generation companies has enhanced electricity generation
in Nigeria and that integration of independent power producers into the national grid ameliorated the challenges of
electricity generation in Nigeria. The study adopted the theory of economic liberalism to advocate support for a freemarket economy and the liberalisation of power generation, transmission and distribution in Nigeria. Documentary
method was used for data collection and content analysis for the interpretation of data generated in course of the study
.Investigation revealed that privatisation of power generation companies has significantly increased electricity
generation in Nigeria from 3000MW in 2013 to about 8100MW daily in 2021. It also discovered that government
ownership and management of electricity transmission, as well as frequent national grid collapse, have resulted in
massive power losses and unevacuated electricity. On the strength of this findings, the study recommended that the
Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) which is 100% owned by the government should be privatised to
accommodate private sector investment and expansion of the transmission infrastructure to enable the evacuation of
more electricity from the generation plants to the national grid.
Keywords: Power sector Reform, Electricity Generation, Generation Companies, Transmission Company of Nigeria,

Keywords: Power sector Reform, Electricity Generation, Generation Companies, Transmission Company of Nigeria,
Nigeria Bulk Electricity Trading Company

Introduction
It is incontrovertible that electricity energy is one of the

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(GRAs) and commercial centres (Aliyu, 2017).
Shortly after independence in 1960, the Niger Dam
Authority (NDA) was formed to build and maintain
dams along the River Niger and Kaduna River. The NDA
went on to build hydroelectric power plants such as the
320MW capacity Kainji dam in 1969 (NERC, 2020). In
1972, the NDA and ECN merged to form the National
Electric Power Authority (NEPA) (NERC, 2010;
Emodi&Dauda, 2015). NEPA, a vertically integrated
utility company mandated by Decree No. 4 to provide a
stable, coordinated, and reliable system of electricity
supply to all parts of Nigeria operated 3 major hydro and

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Impact factor: 6.37

4 thermal power plants (Aminu and Peterside, 2014;
NERC, 2010).The thermal power plants include Sapele
Power Station, which was built between 1978 and 1981,
Ughelli Power Station, which was built between 1966
and 1990, Egbin Thermal Power Station, which was built
between 1985 and 1986, and Afam IV–V Power Station,
which was built between 1982 and 2002. Hydropower
plants include Kainji and Jebba Power Stations in Niger
State, which were built in 1969 and 1985, respectively,
and Shiroro Power Station in Kaduna, which was built in
1990 (Aminu and Peterside, 2014; Onochie, Egware, and
Eyakwanor, 2015).
However, despite an estimated 6, 800 megawatts

Eyakwanor, 2015).
However, despite an estimated 6, 800 megawatts
installed capacity , electricity generation, transmission
and distribution by NEPA in Nigeria between 1972 and
2005 remained low and failed to meet the nation’s
electricity needs (Hashim, 2017; Muogbo, 2013). In fact,
there was a gulf between the total installed capacity and
the actual generation capacity (Babatunde and Shauibu,
2011). These challenges prompted the power sector
reforms starting with the promulgation of the National
Electric Power Policy in 2001 and the establishment of
the National Integrated Power Projects (NIPP) to remedy
the power shortage situation (NERC, 2020; Hashim,
2017; Muogbo, 2013; Aminu, and Peterside, 2014). In
2005, the Electric Power Sector Reform (EPSR) Act,
which gave legal backing for the unbundling of the
NEPA into 6 generations, 11 distributions, and the
transmission company of Nigeria, was passed into law
(Albert et al., 2021). In September 2013, the successor
companies, generation and distribution companies
(GenCos and DisCos) were privatised, completing the
long process of power sector reform (Hashim, 2017;
Muogbo, 2013; Francis et al., 2019; Amadi, 2018).
To encourage the necessary private sector investments,

Muogbo, 2013; Francis et al., 2019; Amadi, 2018).
To encourage the necessary private sector investments,
the government implemented incentives such as the
unrestricted market entry of competent operators both
within and outside the country and the
licensing/integration of new Independent Power
Producers (IPPs) into the pool of electricity generation
in Nigeria (RPSR, 2010; Wakeel, 2019; Aliyu, 2017;
Johnson, 2019). It also includes long-term concession of
the power plants to core investors who demonstrate the
technical and financial ability to operate and expand each
plant; licensing and engaging companies that have
Academic Journal of Current Research

installed capacities, including the international oil
companies, to encourage them to expand their power
production capacities and sell electricity to the national
grid (Emodi, &Dauda, 2015; Francis, et al, 2019).
Existing analyses on the post power sector reforms in

Existing analyses on the post power sector reforms in
Nigeria have attracted plethora of literature. has
explored and analysed the impact of the reform on
electricity distribution and transmission (Adoghe,
Odigwe, Igbinovia, 2009; PWC, 2016; Onagoruwa,
2018; Olaoye, et al., 2016).
It assessed the performance of the power sector in the

2018; Olaoye, et al., 2016).
It assessed the performance of the power sector in the
post-privatisation era and highlights the challenges
confronting electricity generation in Nigeria (Ezirim,
Eke, and Onuoha, 2016; Awosope, 2014; Enoche, et al.,
2015). Extant studies also explored the underlined
politics behind the reform and its implications for the
power sector (Albert, et al., 2021; Johnson, 2019;
Onochie, et al., 2015; Amadi, 2018). Within this group,
Albert et al. (2021) viewed the reform through the prism
of crony capitalism, arguing that the privatisation and
concession of the GenCos and DisCos were nothing
more than political clientelism, patronage, and ceding of
national infrastructure to political cronies of the then
ruling party, the People's Democratic Party (PDP). They
argue thus:
Also, Aminu and Peterside (2014), anchoring on the

Also, Aminu and Peterside (2014), anchoring on the
propositions of the Marxian theory of the state, contend
that the reform represents a strategy by the indigenous
capitalist class in Nigeria (who are also the ruling and
governing class) in collaboration with their foreign
collaborators to increase their control of the means of
production by dominating the ownership of electricity
generation and distribution infrastructures in Nigeria
(Hashim, 2017; Aminu, and Peterside, 2014).
However, while extant literature has explored the impact

The study is anchored on the theory of Economic
Liberalism which is based on strong support for a free-

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(Hashim, 2017; Aminu, and Peterside, 2014).
However, while extant literature has explored the impact
of the reform on electricity transmission and distribution
as well as the challenges and the politics of the power
sector reforms, it has glossed over its impact on
electricity generation. Therefore, against this
background, this study critically assesses the impact of
power sector reform on electricity generation in Nigeria
between 2013 and 2022
Theoretical Framework

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market economy and private ownership and control of
the means of production. It is an economic and political
orientation which advocates limited government
intervention in the economy. Arguments in favour of
economic liberalism were advanced during
the Enlightenment, opposing mercantilismand
feudalism. It was first outlined by Adam Smith in his
book "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the
Wealth of Nations" (1776).
Economic liberalism is founded on the principles of

Wealth of Nations" (1776).
Economic liberalism is founded on the principles of
private property and individual contracts (agreements).
According to the early theorists, individuals' economic
actions are primarily motivated by self-interest (the
invisible hand), and allowing them to act without
restriction will produce the best results for everyone
(spontaneous order), provided that at least minimum
standards of public information and justice are in place
(regulations). It believes in a natural harmony of interests
where producers provide us with goods, not out of
concern for our well-being, but due to their desire to
make a profit. Likewise, workers sell their labour and
buy the producer’s goods as a means of satisfying their
wants. By individuals pursuing their interests, the best
interests of society are served (Smith, 1776).
To liberal economists, the forces of a free competitive

interests of society are served (Smith, 1776).
To liberal economists, the forces of a free competitive
market economy should guide production, exchange,
and distribution in a manner that no government could
improve upon. The government’s role, therefore, is
limited to the protection of property rights, the
enforcement of contracts providing public goods, and
maintaining internal and external security. Thus, the role
of the government should be that of a regulatory
institution that checks the excesses of the activities of
private entities. A non-restrictive but regulatory
government ensures free entry and exit in the market,
exchange relations, and property accumulation premised
on efficiency and profit maximization (Aja, 1998). As
noted by Muogbo (2013), the theory of economic
liberalism is also anchored on the benefits of a freemarket economic system, especially efficient service,
effectiveness and productivity alongside deregulation or
liberalization of the operating environment.
In the thesis of economic liberalism, free trade,

In the thesis of economic liberalism, free trade,
deregulation of the economy, lower taxes, privatization,
labour market flexibility, and opposition to trade unions

are also common positions. It opposes nationalisation
and advocates the privatisation of public enterprises by
transferring state-owned assets to the private sector
control and lifting restrictions surrounding private
investment in public enterprises. The core assumptions
of the theory are as follows:
• Free market economy and private ownership

• Free market economy and private ownership
and control of the means of production
• Government should assume a regulatory role by

• Government should assume a regulatory role by
establishing institutions that check the excesses of the
activities of private entities
• Privatisation of Public enterprises

• Privatisation of Public enterprises
• Free-market entry and exit

• Free-market entry and exit
• Effectiveness and productivity

• Effectiveness and productivity alongside
deregulation or liberalization of the operating
environment
Economic liberalism is a political as well as an economic

environment
Economic liberalism is a political as well as an economic
analysis that assumes that the productivity and efficiency
of economic enterprises such as the Power Sector would
perform much better in a free and competitive market
economy. In this free market economy, it argues that
government should hand off the production, and transfer
the ownership of production and distribution of services
to the private sector. Thus, the role of government,
therefore, is limited to the protection of property rights,
the enforcement of contracts providing public goods, and
checkmating the excesses of the activities of private
entities through institutional regulations.
This theoretical thesis, thus, motivated a global

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This theoretical thesis, thus, motivated a global
economic reform that found its way into Africa in the
mid-1980s. In Nigeria, the liberal economic order
influenced the first-ever economic reform, the Structural
Adjustment Program (SAP) 1986, which privatised and
commercialised numerous government own enterprises
beginning in 1988 (NEPA was also commercialised
within this period) (Akinola, 2021). It was also in this
order that the federal government of Nigeria enacted the
public enterprises (privatization and commercialization)
Act of 1999, which established the National Council on
privatisation and the Bureau of Public Enterprises
(BPE).
In the power sector, the adoption of economic liberalism

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which provided the statutory basis for the unbundling of
the Power Holding Company of Nigeria into 11
distribution companies, 1 transmission company and 6
generation companies.
The reform process was divided into two main stages:

generation companies.
The reform process was divided into two main stages:
the unbundling of NEPA into segments; the transfer of
assets to the Power Holding Company of Nigeria
(PHCN); and the sale of assets to private companies. In
the first stage, NEPA was unbundled into generation,
transmission and distribution segments, comprising
eighteen new successor companies under PHCN in
November 2005. Specifically, six companies handled
power generation; a single subsidiary (Transmission
Company of Nigeria) controlled the transmission
segment, while eleven companies managed the
distribution of electricity within designated geographical
areas. Nigerian Electricity Liability Management
Company (NELMCO) was established to oversee the
transition and liability management in the transfer of the
assets, liabilities and staff of PHCN to the successor
companies. In 2010, the Nigeria Bulk Electricity Trading
Co Plc. (NBET) was incorporated and charged with the
role of bulk trading, while NERC was established to act
as an independent regulator of the power sector.
In December 2010, the FGN requested investors to

as an independent regulator of the power sector.
In December 2010, the FGN requested investors to
submit their bids. In 2013, the Bureau of Public
Enterprises (BPE) held a bid round to auction at least 51
percent ownership of four thermal generation plants, two
hydropower generation plants, and eleven distribution
companies held by the defunct PHCN. Out of 330
Expressions of Interest, 220 bidders were selected and,
ultimately, 15 enterprises won the bids. By the end of
2014, the government was able to completely hand over
the power generation and distribution assets to private
hands (FGN, 2016).
To create free-market enterprises and remove
restrictions surrounding power generation and

hands (FGN, 2016).
To create free-market enterprises and remove
restrictions surrounding power generation and
distribution, the government also issued licences to
independent power producers (IPPs) and core investors
who demonstrate the capacity, technical knowledge and
investment ability to build and maintain power
generation plants in Nigeria. Incentives were also created
to attract core investors with large expertise and liquidity
to finance the infrastructure needed to improve power
generation and distribution in Nigeria.
Academic Journal of Current Research

In conclusion, the theory of economic liberalism best
explains this study because it highlights the economic
and political rationale behind economic reforms in
Nigeria which saw the privatisation of the power sector
as a means of ensuring a free competitive market
economy, attracting investors to the power sector, and
ensuring increased productivity and efficiency after
decades of NEPA mismanagement.

Methodology

Methodology
The study adopted documentary methods for data
collection and content analysis for the interpretation of
data generated in course of the study. Documentary
method involves eliciting information from already
existing documents. Contents analysis enables us gather,
investigate, categorize, interpret and identify the
usefulness or otherwise of documents consulted as
sources of data in the study. In line with the above, the
study essentially relied on and utilized relevant data from
official report documents from the Nigeria Bulk
Electricity Trading Company (NBET), the Nigeria
Electricity System Operator (SO), the Association of
Power Generation Companies of Nigeria (APGC),and
the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), Power
Africa- Nigeria Power Sector Program (PA-NPSP), and
Guardian Newspaper online report, among others. Also,
information was gotten from journals and other
materials.
Privatization of Power generation companies and

Methodology
The study adopted documentary methods

materials.
Privatization of Power generation companies and
Electricity Generation in Nigeria
As part of the capitalist orientation and neo-liberal

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Electricity Generation in Nigeria
As part of the capitalist orientation and neo-liberal
reforms which swept across Sub-Sahara Africa in the
mid-1980s, most countries in the region including
Nigeria began to initiate and implement structural
changes in different facet of their economy. Thus, the
role of the public sector in owning and managing
economic assets was reduced. Policies such
as privatisation, deregulation and commercialisation
were encouraged based on the assumption that market
forces would allocate resources more efficiently. Within
this period, the defunct NEPA was commercialised.
However, following the failure of NEPA to maintain and

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Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA) in 2005,
PHCN was unbundled into 18 companies consisting of

Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA) in 2005,
PHCN was unbundled into 18 companies consisting of

PHCN was unbundled into 18 companies consisting of
six (6) generation companies, eleven (11) distribution
companies and one (1) transmission company. The
EPSRA provided the legal framework that enabled the
participation of privately owned enterprises in the
Nigerian power sector. In 2013, the majority of shares

Nigerian power sector. In 2013, the majority of shares
(and in a few cases, all of the shares) in the sixgeneration companies were sold to private entities. Also,
the majority of shares in the distribution companies were
successfully sold to private entities.
government retained ownership of the Transmission
Company of Nigeria.
The Generation Companies (GenCos)

Nigerian power sector. In 2013, the majority of shares
(and in a few cases, all of the shares) in the sixgeneration companies were sold to private entities. Also,
the majority of shares in the distribution companies were
successfully sold to private entities. However, the
government retained ownership of the Transmission
The Generation Companies (GenCos)

The Generation Companies (GenCos)
Electricity supplied to the national grid is produced from

gas (thermal) accounts for about 85.5% of Nigeria's total
energy mix, hydro accounts for the other 14.5%. Since
2013, Power generation in Nigeria has remained
operational as separate entities following the handover
of PHCN assets to the private sector. Today, there are
several power generation companies in Nigeria. They are
often referred to as GenCos, a term that came into use in

often referred to as GenCos, a term that came into use in
2013\. Among these power generation companies are
successor companies of the privatised power plants,
Independent Power Producers (IPP), and Niger Delta
Power Holding Company (NDPHC) also known as the
national integrated power project (NIPP). The IPPs
include power generation companies managed by the
private sector before the privatization of the power
generating sector.

often referred to as GenCos, a term that came into use in
2013\. Among these power generation companies are
successor companies of the privatised power plants,
Independent Power Producers (IPP), and Niger Delta
Power Holding Company (NDPHC) also known as the
national integrated power project (NIPP). The IPPs
include power generation companies managed by the
private sector before the privatization of the power
generating sector.

Table 1: List of Electricity Generation Infrastructures in Nigeria and their Location
Power Station Location Installed Year started functional

| Power Station | Location | Installed Capacity | Year started | functional |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| AES Barge | Egbin | 270MW | 2001 | functional |
| Aba | Aba, Abia State | 140MW | 2012 | not functional |
| Afam IV-V Afam, | Rivers State | 726MW | 1982 | Functional |
| Afam VI Afam | Rivers State | 624MW | 2009 | not functional |
| Geregu 1 Geregu, | Kogi State | 414MW | 2007 | not functional |
| Okpai | Okpai | 480MW | 2005 | not functional |
| Egbin | Egbin | 1320MW | 1986 | Functional |
| Olorunsogo | Olorunsogo | 336MW | 2007 | Functional |
| Olorunsogo 11 | Olorunsogo | 675MW | 2012 | not functional |
| Omoku | Omoku | 150MW | 2005 | Functional |
| Omotosho 1 | Omotosho | 336MW | 2005 | Functional |
| Sapele | Sapele | 1020MW | 1981 | Functional |
| Ughelli | Delta State | 900MW | 1990 | Functional |
| Jebba | Niger | 540MW | 1985 | functional |
| Shiroro | Kaduna State | 600MW | 1990 | Functional |

Source: ICRC, 2020
Table 1 shows the list of electricity-generating infrastructures in Nigeria. Among these, only a few plants such as

Table 1 shows the list of electricity-generating infrastructures in Nigeria. Among these, only a few plants such as
Shiroro, Jebba,Afam, Olorunsogo, Ughelli, Egbin, and Sapele were considered functional, contributing about 98% of
the overall electricity generation prior to the 2013 privatisation of the GenCos in Nigeria.
Table 2: List of the Privatised GenCos, their new status and ownership

Table 2: List of the Privatised GenCos, their new status and ownership
Power Plants Installed Type Status New Owner/ Concessioned to

| Power Plants | Installed Capacity | Type | Status | New Owner/Concessioned to |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Ughelli Power Plc | 972MW | Gas | 100% Sold | Transcorp Power Limited |
| Egbin Power Plc | 1,320MW | Gas | 80% Sold | Sahara Power Group And KEPCO Energy Resource |

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Academic Journal of Current Research
Vol.10, No.6; June-2023;

Vol.10, No.6; June-2023;
ISSN (2343 – 403X);

ISSN (2343 – 403X);
p –ISSN 3244 – 5621

p –ISSN 3244 – 5621
Impact factor: 6.37

Impact factor: 6.37

| Geregu power Plc | 414MW | Gas | 80% Sold | Amperion Power Distribution Ltd |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Sapele Power Plc | 1,020 MW | Gas | 51% Sold | Eurafric Power Ltd |
| Kainji Power Plant | 760MW | Hydro | Concession | Mainstream Energy |
| Jebba Power Plant | 578MW | Hydro | Concession | Mainstream Energy |
| Shiroro Power Plc | 600MW | Hydro | Concession | North-South Power Company Ltd |
| Afam Power Plc | 966MW | Gas | 100% Sold in the year 2020 | Transcorp Power Limited |

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from [https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation](https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation)
Table 2 shows the privatised power generation plants, Commission (NERC) which stands as the

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from [https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation](https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation)
Table 2 shows the privatised power generation plants,
installed capacity and new companies that acquired
them. In November 2013, during the privatization,
Transcorp Plc won the bid for the Federal Government
of Nigeria’s distressed power generating company,
Ughelli Power plant. In November 2015, Transcorp
Ughelli Power Limited and Ughelli Power Plc merged,
and Transcorp Power Limited was born. The merger
harmonized the management and operations of
Transcorp’s power business for greater efficiency.
Another notable acquisition is Egbin Power Plant, the
largest power generating station in Nigeria with an
installed capacity of 1,320 MW consisting of 6 Units of
220MW each. It was acquired in 2013 by Sahara Power
Group and South Korean power company, KEPCO
Energy Resource. The station is located at Ijede / Egbin,
in Ikorodu, Lagos state. Also, Geregu Power Plant was
acquired by Amperion Power Distribution Company
Limited holding. However, in that acquisition, the
company got an 80% stake and the remaining 20%
was retained by the Federal Government of Nigeria
(jointly held by the Bureau of Public Enterprise and
Ministry of Finance Incorporated). Furthermore, the
1,020 MW Sapele power plantswere acquired in 2014 by
Eurafric Power Limited. Then, the hydro-powered plants
were acquired by Mainstream Energy and North-South
Power Company Ltd. It is important to note that not all
the six power-generation plants were privatised in 2013.
For example, the Sapele power plant was privatised in
2014, while the Afam power plant was not privatised
until late 2020 when it was acquired by Transcorp Power
Limited.
Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission
The 2005 Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA)

The 2005 Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA)
established the Nigerian Electricity Regulatory
Academic Journal of Current Research

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from [https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation](https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation)
Commission (NERC) which stands as the major
regulator of all activities (generation, transmission,
distribution, utility, and trading) inthe electricity sector.
The commission provides the requirement, regulations,
and licencing for investors who wish to participate in the
power sector in Nigeria. The commission also
establishes subsidiary agencies such as the Rural
Electrification Agency which is responsible for
promoting rural electrification programmes in the
country.
To obtain a generation licence from NERC, an applicant

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country.
To obtain a generation licence from NERC, an applicant
is required to be a company duly registered in Nigeria
with audited financial statements and tax clearance
certificates for the past three years (this requirement may
be waived where the applicant is a newly incorporated
Special Purpose Vehicle) (The EPSRA, 2005). Where
the proposed generation capacity is 10 MW and above,
the applicant is also required to conduct an
Environmental Impact Assessment on the location where
it intends to carry out the electricity generation. The
applicant is also required to provide a power purchase
agreement either with the Nigerian Bulk Electricity
Trader (NBET) or with another off-taker. Other
documents required for the application include evidence
of ownership of the project site (or long-term lease
agreement), gas supply and transportation agreements
(for gas-fired plants), a Water Licence (for hydropower
plants), engineering, procurement and construction
agreements and operation and maintenance agreements
(where applicable), finance agreements and a 10-year
business plan. An applicant is required to submit the duly
completed application form, together with the required
documents and the application fee to the Commission.
Thereafter, the Commission will notify the applicant of
its decision within 6 months from receipt of the
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application. Generation licences are valid for an initial
period of 10 years, with renewal applicationsexpected at
least nine months before the expiration of the initial term
(NERC, 2010).
Nigeria Bulk Electricity Trading Company (NBET)

(NERC, 2010).
Nigeria Bulk Electricity Trading Company (NBET)
Like the NERC, the Nigeria Bulk Electricity Trading
Company (NBET) is 100% owned by the Federal
Government of Nigeria. It was incorporated on July 29,
2010, in line with the "Roadmap to Power Sector
Reform" and, in fulfilment of the requirements for the
Electricity Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA) of 2005.
Figure 1: Structure of the Nigerian Power Sector before and after privatisation

Its function is to engage in the purchase and resale of
electrical power and ancillary services from independent
power producers and successor generation companies.
NBET purchases electricity from the Generation
Companies through Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs)
and sells it to the Distribution Companies through
Vesting Contracts (ICRC, 2020, NBET, 2020). The
Generation Companies include the privatized PHCN
successor companies, the Niger Delta Power Holding
Companies (NIPPs), the already existing Independent
Power Producers (IPPs) and the new IPPs.
Figure 1: Structure of the Nigerian Power Sector before and after privatisation

Figure 1: Structure of the Nigerian Power Sector before and after privatisation
\[Image: Image38\]

\[Image: Image38\]

\[Image: Image38\]

\[Image: Image38\]
Source: CSEA, 2017
Figure 1shows an overview of the structure of the

Figure 1shows an overview of the structure of the
Nigerian power sector pre-privatization and postprivatization era. As was already stated throughout this
study, the power was vertically integrated under the
defunct NEPA and later PHCN. However, following the
privatisation in 2013, the Nigeria Electricity Liability
Management Company (NELMCo), NERC, GenCos,
TCN, DisCos, and NBET became independent
electricity companies.
Electricity Generation in Nigeria

Electricity Generation in Nigeria
Successive governments since independence

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| Year | Total generation in Megawatts | Installed capacity in Megawatts |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1975 | 395.4 | 926.2 |
| 1976 | 468.7 | 1125.2 |
| 1977 | 538.0 | 1114.2 |
| 1978 | 522.7 | 1793.7 |
| 1979 | 710.7 | 2230.6 |
| 1980 | 815.1 | 2230.5 |
| 1981 | 887.7 | 2430.0 |

Successive governments since independence have
struggled to generate enough electricity that would give
Table 3: Electricity generation in Nigeria from 1975 to 2005

the Nigerian people access to quality and reliable power
supply (Ezirim et al, 2016). In fact, the power supply in
Nigeria over the last 50 years has remained unstable,
erratic, and unreliable (Albert, et al, 2021).Within this
period, the power sector witnessed little infrastructural
development and very poor maintenance of the existing
infrastructure. From 1972 to 2005, the average electricity
generation in Nigeria was nothing more than 1750 MV
against an installed capacity of over 5800 MW which by
itself was grossly inadequate (ICRC, 2020)

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| 1982 | 973.9 | 2902.1 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1983 | 994.6 | 2856.8 |
| 1984 | 1025.5 | 3178.0 |
| 1985 | 1166.8 | 3995.5 |
| 1986 | 1228.9 | 4016.0 |
| 1987 | 1286.0 | 4548.0 |
| 1988 | 1330.4 | 4548.0 |
| 1989 | 1462.7 | 4548.0 |
| 1990 | 1536.9 | 4548.0 |
| 1991 | 1617.2 | 4548.0 |
| 1992 | 1693.4 | 4540.0 |
| 1993 | 1655.8 | 4548.6 |
| 1994 | 1772.9 | 4548.6 |
| 1995 | 1810.1 | 4548.6 |
| 1996 | 1854.2 | 4548.6 |
| 1997 | 1839.8 | 4548.6 |
| 1998 | 1724.9 | 4548.6 |
| 1999 | 1859.8 | 5580.0 |
| 2000 | 1859.8 | 5580.0 |
| 2001 | 1689.9 | 6180.0 |
| 2002 | 2237.3 | 6180.0 |
| 2003 | 1180.0 | 6130.0 |
| 2004 | 2763.6 | 6130.0 |
| 2005 | 2779.3 | 6861.6 |

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Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin 2005
Also, within this period, NERC, (2010) reports that only
19 units out of 79 generation units in the country were
operational.
Electricity Generation in the Post-Privatisation Era

Electricity Generation in the Post-Privatisation Era
The failure of NEPA, which was owned and operated by
the government, to satisfy the electricity need of the
nation, paved the way for the delegation of power
generation and distribution functions to the private
sector. According to analysts, the biggest success of the
Power Sector reform was the successful privatisation of
the power sector, the successful financing of the first
post-privatisation private sector-funded IPP, and the
attractionof over US$5 billion in investments by the
private sector. These investments were predominantly
driven by confidence in the reform roadmap strategy.
Unique to the privatisation exercise was the fact that
participation was driven mostly by local sponsors
financed by local banks (PSRP, 2017). On taking over
the power plants on November 1, 2013, the new
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investors were expected to refurbish, maintain, replace,
operate and expand the capacities of the plants to achieve
their mandate of generating electricity for the country. In
line with the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) signed
with the BPE, the GENCOs were to recover their cost of
investment through invoices from electricity sales.
Performance of the Privatised Power Plants

Performance of the Privatised Power Plants
Table 4: Yearly Average Generation/Available Electricity Generated in Nigeria since the Privatisation

Statistical evidence shows that the newly privatised
generation companies have ramped up power installed
st
capacity from about 7,000MW at taking over on the 1 of
November, 2013 to an installed capacity of 13,014MW.
More fundamentally, the average daily electricity
generation has increased from 3500MW in 2013 to 8,100
MW in 2022
Table 4: Yearly Average Generation/Available Electricity Generated in Nigeria since the Privatisation

Table 4: Yearly Average Generation/Available Electricity Generated in Nigeria since the Privatisation
Year Generation/ Available Capacity Installed Capacity

| Year | Generation/Available Capacity | Installed Capacity |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 2022 | 8,100MW | 13,014.14MW |
| 2021 | 8,100MW | 13,014.14MW |
| 2020 | 7,652.6MW | 12,954.40MW |
| 2019 | 7,652.6MW | 12,910.40MW |
| 2018 | 7,139.60MW | 11,165.40MW |
| 2017 | 7,139.60MW | 11,165.40MW |
| 2016 | 7,492.60MW | 11,165.40MW |
| 2015 | 6,139.60MW | 11,165.40MW |
| 2014 | 6,139.60MW | 11,165.40MW |
| 2013 | 3,030.04MW | 7000.20MW |

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from daily operation report of System Operators of Nigeria, available
[https://nsong.org/Library](https://nsong.org/Library).
Table 4 shows that available electricity generated in Nigeria since 2013 has increased year-on-year from 3,030.1MW in

Table 4 shows that available electricity generated in Nigeria since 2013 has increased year-on-year from 3,030.1MW in
2013 to 8,100MW in 2022, indicating a 381% increment over the past eight years. Also, Nigeria's on-grid installed
capacity has equally increased by 96% from 7, 314.20MW in 2013 to 13,014.14MW in the first quarter of 2022.
Table 5: yearly average of electricity sent-out by GenCos, the unutilised/stranded generated electricity, power

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from System Operators, [https://nsong.org/Library](https://nsong.org/Library).

| Year | Available (Total Generation) | Power Sent-Out To The National Grid | Daily Stranded/Unutilised | Daily Power Lost Through Transmission |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2021 |  |  |  |  |
| 1Q | 8,100MW | 4,711.30MW | 1341.15MW | 2,050.02MW |
| 2Q | 8,100MW | 4,882.00MW | 1257.58MW | 1964.00MW |
| 3Q | 8,100MW | 5,110.12MW | 1096.44MW | 2,114.06MW |
| 4Q | 8,100MW | 5,161.05MW | 880.95MW | 2,198.44MW |
| 2020 | 7,652.6MW | 4,583.08MW | 976.76MW | 1732.65MW |
| 2019 | 7,652.6MW | 4,320.11MW | 845.00MW | 1695.10MW |
| 2018 | 7,139.60MW | 4,219.22MW | 731.98MW | 1582.32MW |
| 2017 | 7,139.60MW | 4,321.01MW | 827.08MW | 1454.01MW |
| 2016 | 7,492.60MW | 4,184.00MW | 719.28MW | 1388.20MW |
| 2015 | 6,139.60MW | 3,890.11MW | 698.76MW | 1365.34MW |
| 2014 | 6,139.60MW | 3,421.19MW | 597.21MW | 1278.44MW |
| 2013 | 3,030.04MW | 2,710.01MW | N/A | 298.02MW |

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Table 5, which was compiled from the Electricity
Generation Companies Facts Sheet, shows that while the
average available power generation in 2021 was
8,100MW, the actual average generation put on the
national grid for utilisation during the period was
4,882.00MW daily. In 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016,
2015, and 2014, the average power generation capacity
stood at 7,652.6MW, 7,139.60MW, 7,492.60MW, and
6,139.60MW respectively, but due to constraints such as
stranded/unutilised power, power lost, and other
Figure 2: Change in average daily electricity sent to the National grid before and after privatisation

constraints as we shall discuss later in this section, only
4, 583.08MW daily was put on the national grid in 2020,
4, 320.11MW in 2019, 4, 219.22MW in 2018,
4,321.01MW in 2017, 4,184.00MW in 2016,
3,890.11MW in 2015, and 3,421.19MW in 2014. The
2021 generation capacity loss data showed that the
country’s power sector recorded stranded electricity in
all 12 months of 2021, 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2016,
2015, and 2014 respectively.

Figure 2: Change in average daily electricity sent to the National grid before and after privatisation

Change in Electricity Generation (in
Megawatts) from 2000 to 2022

Trend in Electricity
Generation (in Megawatts)
from 2000 to 2022

Linear (Trend in Electricity
Generation (in Megawatts)
from 2000 to 2022)

Source: Created by the authors, data generated from [https://nsong.org/Library](https://nsong.org/Library).
Figure 2 shows a continuous trend of increment of daily electricity generation sent to the national grid since. After years

Figure 2 shows a continuous trend of increment of daily electricity generation sent to the national grid since. After years
of stagnation (200-2013), electricity generation began to witness rapid increase year after year
Figure 3: Change in total Available and installed capacity of electricity in Nigeria from 2000 to 2022

Source: Created by the authors, data generated from system operators of Nigeria [https://nsong.org/Library](https://nsong.org/Library).
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Figure 3: Change in total Available and installed capacity of electricity in Nigeria from 2000 to 2022

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Figure 3 shows rapid increase in both daily available
electricity generation capacity and installed generation
capacity. From 2013 to 2021, available capacity moved
from 3,000MW daily to 8,100MW (i.e. about 291%
increases). Also, the generation installed capacity moved
from 7000MW in 2013 to 13, 000 in 2021.
Assessment of the Privatised Power plants in Nigeria

Assessment of the Privatised Power plants in Nigeria
As was noted earlier in this section, Ughelli Power Plant,
Egbin Power Plant (80% sold), Geregu Power plant,
Jebba Hydro power plant and Kainji Hydro power plant
were the power generation plants successfully
Table 6: Power Plants Generation before and after Privatisation

Table 6: Power Plants Generation before and after Privatisation
Power Plant Installed Before After

privatised/concessioned in 2013. 51% of Sapele Power
plant was sold to the private sector in 2014, while it was
late 2020 that the Afam power plant was successfully
privatised. Evidence from the Bureau of Public
Enterprises (BPE, 2020) shows that Ughelli Power Plant
and Geregu power plant have surpassed the five-year
performance agreement target of 670 MW and 414MW
set by BPE at the handover of Ughelli Power and Egbin
Power, after achieving 680.83MW and 435MW daily
generation capacity respectively.

Furthermore, at handover in 2013, Kainji Hydro Electric
with 760MW installed capacity and Jebba Hydro
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| Power Plant | Installed Capacity | Before Privatisation | After Privatisation | Increment(%) | Contribution to the National Grid(%) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Ughelli Power Plant | 972MW | 160MW | 680MW | 490% | 16% |
| Egbin Power Plant | 1,320MW | 300MW | 970MW | 390% | 20% |
| Geregu power plant | 414MW | 30MW | 435MW(plant expanded in 2016) | 1450% | 9% |
| Sapele Power Plant | 1,020MW | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| Kainji/Jebba Power Plant | 760MW and 578MW | 640MW | 1002MW | 82% | 26% |
| Shiroro Power Plc | 600MW | 90MW | 390MW | 420% | 8% |

Source: NERC, 2021
According to Shonubi (2021), “Egbin

Source: NERC, 2021
According to Shonubi (2021), “Egbin has 1,320MW
capacity. But at the time it was taken over, the plant was
generating 300MW which is an abysmal 22 percent. As
of today, the generation capacity has surged and
operating above 89 percent. In fact, the plant hit a
generation peak of 970MW in 2021 despite challenges.
Also, reports from BPE, NBET, and Transcorp Plc
annual report bulletin show that when the Ughelli power
plant was acquired by the Transnational Corporation
Group in 2013, the plant only had a capacity of 160MW
due to an old gas turbine being out of service and other
infrastructural issues. The plant, which is now operating
with a capacity of 680MW can supply power to up to a
2.4million Nigerian homes.
Furthermore, at handover in 2013, Kainji Hydro Electric

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Constraints to Better Electricity Supply in Nigeria
It is evident from table 3&4 that GenCos are not

Electric Plant with an installed capacity of 578.4 MW
could only boast of 100MW and 45MW generation
capacity as 7 of its power generation units were awaiting
delayed overhaul. As ofthe present day, the Kainji power
plant has increased its available capacity to 440MW and
Jebba to 250MW. Also, the 434 MW-capacity Geregu
Power plant operated by Amperion Power Distribution
Company Limited, a subsidiary of Forte Oil Plc, owned
by investor and businessman, Femi Otedola has
significantly increased its generation capacity since the
privatisation (BPE, 2021).
Constraints to Better Electricity Supply in Nigeria

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the Association of Power Generation Companies of
Nigeria, Joy Ogaji, summarized the performance and
constraints of the power generation sector in Nigeria
thus:

After taking over, Nigeria has increased its ability to

After taking over, Nigeria has increased its ability to
generate from 4500 MW to over 13, 000 MW; this is a
clear result of the generating companies that have shown
their dedication to giving Nigeria the much-deserved
electricity by increasing their ability to generate more
electricity and present enough to serve Nigeria. With the
increase in capacity to produce enough power for the
nation, we ask ourselves, so why haven't we seen this
newly added capacity? This is because constraining
generation capacity occurs frequently in the Nigeria
electricity supply industry where generation companies
are forced by the Independent System Operator to reduce
the amount of power they feed into the electricity grid to
maintain system stability, system nominal voltage,
nominal frequency and to avoid the overall collapse of
the National Electrical Grid. Due to system constraints,
GENCOs are forced to reduce generated power to match
the transmission and distribution infrastructure that
conveys electricity to the customer. In the first quarter of
2021 for instance, despite an available generation
capability of 8,145MW, GENCos were only allowed to
send less than 4500MW to distribution companies, thus
losing an average of 3,659MW daily (Salau, 2022:6).
Also, recent technical audits (NCC Daily Broadcast)

Integration of the Independent Power Producers and
Challenges of Electricity Generation in Nigeria

losing an average of 3,659MW daily (Salau, 2022:6).
Also, recent technical audits (NCC Daily Broadcast)
confirm that Nigeria has a generation capacity of 13,
00MW with more generation capacity coming up, also a
transmission capacity of 6500MW to 7000MW but still
is unable to wheel an average of 4500MW on a
distribution level voltage. Rejecting the load generated
has huge technical and commercial implications for
other stakeholders in the electricity sector. Generation
companies due to system instability are forced to
increase the maintenance of their machines thereby
spending far more than expected; this includes frequent
overhauls of their machines due to grid instability caused
by load rejection, increased fuel or gas use, services of
control devices, resultant wear and tear of rotating parts
in machines etc.
Integration of the Independent Power Producers and

Independent Power Producers (IPPs) are power plants
owned and controlled by individuals and investors who
were licenced to produce electricity to ameliorate the
challenges of electricity generation in Nigeria.
Requirement for Licencing Independent Power

Requirement for Licencing Independent Power
Producers
The Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC)

Producers
The Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC)
is a body charged with the responsibility of regulating
standards of performance for all electricity licensees and
monitoring performance to ensure that standards and
efficiency are met and maintained. According to the
NERC regulations, the following requirements were
outlined for potential applicants under the IPP licence:
General Requirements for Power Generation:

General Requirements for Power Generation:
(i) Site Map: Showing fuel delivery and storage

(ii) Location Map: Showing Roads, Rail Lines,
Transmission Lines, Rivers, Reservoirs, etc.
(iii) A principal single-line diagram of the project site.

(i) Site Map: Showing fuel delivery and storage
locations, transmission evacuation site, water pipelines,
gaseous, liquid and solid waste disposal areas etc.
(ii) Location Map: Showing Roads, Rail Lines,

(iii) A principal single-line diagram of the project site.
(iv) Fuel Sourcing, Transportation and Supply

(iv) Fuel Sourcing, Transportation and Supply
Arrangements.
(v) Water supply and availability analysis for plant and

(v) Water supply and availability analysis for plant and
staff use.
(vi) Plant Design. (vii) Power Station Information:

(vi) Plant Design. (vii) Power Station Information:

01. Total capacity (MW)

02. Total capacity (MW)

03. Number of Generating Units

04. Size of Generating Units (MW)

05. Expected Annual Generation (MWh)

06. Number of Generating Units

07. Size of Generating Units (MW)

08. Expected Annual Generation (MWh)

09. Proposed Running Regime

10. Station Load/Load Factor


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6. Station Load/Load Factor
   (vii) Generator Unit Information
   (viii) Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC)

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(viii) Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC)
Contract.
(ix) Report of evacuation studies (For Grid Connection):

(ix) Report of evacuation studies (For Grid Connection):

1. Load Flow Studies

(xii) Evidence of approval from Transmission Company
of Nigeria (TCN) confirming that the proposed
connection point can take load which will be fed to it
Connection

(ix) Report of evacuation studies (For Grid Connection):

1. Load Flow Studies
2. Stability Studies

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(x) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Waste
Management Plan.
(xi) Expected date of Commissioning

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(xi) Expected date of Commissioning
(xii) Evidence of approval from Transmission Company

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Source: Regulation No: NERC-R-0110A
The IPPs provide a platform for private investors to

The IPPs provide a platform for private investors to
build, own, and operate power plants by generating and
Table 7: Some existingIndependent Power Producers integrated into the national grid after 2013

Table 7: Some existingIndependent Power Producers integrated into the national grid after 2013
Independent Power Producers Year Built Installed Capacity Location

selling electricity to the national grid through a bulk
buyer.

| Independent Power Producers | Year Built | Installed Capacity | Location |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Shell-operated-Afam VI | 2009 | 642MW | Rivers State |
| Agip operated-Okpai | 2005 | 480MW | Delta State |
| Ibom Power | 2009 | 190 MW | IkotAbas,Akwa Ibom |
| NESCO | N/A | 30MW | Bukuru,Plateau State |
| AES Barges | 2001 | 270MW | Niger State |
| Alaogi Power Station | 2012 | 140MW | Abia State |
| Omoku Power Station | 2005 | 150MW | Rivers State |
| Azura Power Station | 2018 | 450MW | Benin City |

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from [https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation](https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation)
Table 7 shows some of the IPPs that were integrated into In 2020, following the satisfactory evaluation of their

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from [https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation](https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation)
Table 7 shows some of the IPPs that were integrated into
the national grid following the implementation of power
sector reform in 2013. In line with the government's
effort to increase domestic and foreign participation in
the electric power sector, modalities were laid down to
licence individuals and corporate entities who
demonstrate the capacity to independently build powergeneration plants and transmit them to the national grid.
In 2017, the NERC, after the requisite satisfactory
evaluation process, issued a total of fifteen (15) new
generation licences and approved the change in
shareholding for two (2) existing generation licensees.
The new licences include on-grid, off-grid, embedded
generation, and Independent Electricity Distribution
Networks with a total nameplate capacity of
2,280.80MW. A total of eleven (11) new permits were
issued for captive power generation with a total
nameplate capacity of 153.10MW (2017).
In 2018, the Commission issued a total of twenty-one

Table 8: List of Power Plants under the National Integrated Power Project managed by the Niger Delta
Power Holding Company (NDPHC)

total capacity of 86.70MW (NERC, 2020).
Complementing the IPPs, the National Integrated Power
Projects (NIPPs), which started in 2004, were
commissioned as a part of power sector deregulation to
attain the goals of continuous electricity supply and
reduced gas flaring in the Niger Delta region. The NIPP
was initially developed around seven medium-sized gasfired power plants in gas-producing states, as well as the
key transmission infrastructure required to evacuate the
additional electricity into the national grid. The Federal
Government, therefore, incorporated the Niger Delta
Power Holding Company Limited (NDPHC) as a limited
liability company to serve as the legal vehicle to hold the
NIPP assets using private sector-orientated best business
practices. NDPHC is incorporated under the Companies
and Allied Matters Act as a private limited liability
company fully subscribed to by federal, state, and local
governments with a mandate to manage power projects
(NERC, 2020).
Table 8: List of Power Plants under the National Integrated Power Project managed by the Niger Delta

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| Power Plant | State | Installed Capacity | Status |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Alaoji | Abia state | 1,074MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Ihovbor | Edo state | 451MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Calabar | Cross River | 563MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Egbema | Imo state | 338MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Gbarain II | Bayelsa State | 225MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Geregu II | Kogi State | 434MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Olorunsogo II | Ogun state | 675MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Omotosho II | Ondo state | 451MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Omoku | Rivers state | 225MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |
| Sapele | Delta State | 450MW | Own by the 3tiers of government |

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from [https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation](https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation)
Table 8 shows the NIPP which comprised the ten gas-power stations continually have low available generating

Source: Compiled by the authors, data generated from [https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation](https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/403-generation)
Table 8 shows the NIPP which comprised the ten gasfired plants mainly located in the oil-producing region of
Nigeria. These plants are owned by the 3tiers of
government but managed by the Niger Delta Power
Holding Company. Aside from this, several IPPs are
currently under construction including the 276-MW
Siemens station in Afam, Exxon Mobils 388-MW plant
in Bonny, ABBs 450-MW plant in Abuja, and Eskoms
388-MW plant in Enugu. Several state governments
have also commissioned Oil companies’ IPPs to increase
generation including Rivers State, which contracted
Shell to expand the 700-MW Afam station (NERC,
2020).
Challenges of Electricity Generation in Nigeria

Electricity has been in existence in Nigeria for more than

Challenges of Electricity Generation in Nigeria

Electricity has been in existence in Nigeria for more than
100 years, yet its availability to Nigerians has remained
a great challenge. This is because the industry has been
plagued by several challenges. Some of the challenges
confronting electricity generation in Nigeria are
highlighted below.
Ageing Power Generation Infrastructure

Ageing Power Generation Infrastructure
One of the major challenges facing electricity
generation in Nigeria is the ageing of electricity

generation in Nigeria is the ageing of electricity
generation plants. Before the privatisation of GenCos in
2013, on average, most of the functional thermal power
plants in Nigeria were more than 30 years old (see table
1 of this study). Specifically, the bulk of Nigeria’s
electricity infrastructure was commissioned between
1963 and 1990 (that is 52–25 years ago). This makes
their repair and maintenance extremely difficult as most
of these plants’ parts have become obsolete even at the

generation in Nigeria is the ageing of electricity
generation plants. Before the privatisation of GenCos in
2013, on average, most of the functional thermal power
plants in Nigeria were more than 30 years old (see table
1 of this study). Specifically, the bulk of Nigeria’s
electricity infrastructure was commissioned between
1963 and 1990 (that is 52–25 years ago). This makes
their repair and maintenance extremely difficult as most
of these plants’ parts have become obsolete even at the

Ageing Power Generation Infrastructure
One of the major challenges facing

power stations continually have low available generating
capacities, with plants like Ajaokuta, Afam I-V, and
Sapele having average availability factors of 0%, 1.5%,
and 9.1% respectively (Okedu, Kenu, Idowu, and
Uhunmwangho, 2018).
Insufficient Generation Capacity

Insufficient Generation Capacity
As indicated in table 3, the average electricity generation

As indicated in table 3, the average electricity generation
is far below the installed capacity. For example, between
2010 and 2013, the total installed generating capacity
was 12,522 MW, but the average operating generation
capacity was less than 3, 8479 MW, with more than 9.4%
lost in transmission and up to 27.7% rejected at
distribution daily (Okedu et al., 2018). This leaves
Nigeria with around 2,519MW, on average, as of 2013.
Shortage in Gas Supply

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Shortage in Gas Supply
One of the major setbacks to electricity generation in

One of the major setbacks to electricity generation in
Nigeria is the high irregularity in gas supply to the
thermal power stations. This irregularity is a key
contributing factor to the generation imbalance
mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Reasons for this
irregularity ranged from unguaranteed Gas Supply
Agreements (GSA) between the thermal stations and the
government-owned gas transmission company, the
Nigerian Gas Company (NGC), to a lack of gas network
infrastructure to adequately transport the gas to the
plants. These lapses in the gas supply logistics
subsequently result in issues of incessant low gas
pressure, gas shortages, and even condensate
accumulation in the pipelines. All these issues, acting
together, adversely hinder the efficient utilisation of the
plants’ available capacity, thereby having a dire impact

* * *

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on the nation’s generating output (Vincent and Udeorah,
2018).
Gas Pipelines Vandalization

Gas Pipelines Vandalization
One of the major constraints to effective electricity

Gas Pipelines Vandalization
One of the major constraints to effective electricity
generation in Nigeria is the unstable and continuous
vandalization of gas pipelines that supply the thermal
power generating plants with gas. In the Niger-Delta
region, where most of the thermal power plants are
located, gas pipelines are frequently vandalised by oil
thieves (Richard, 2019; Rindap, 2015). As a result, most
of Nigeria’s gas plants are no longer connected to oil
companies but depend on supplies from tankers for their
required gas supply. It is worth noting that gas power
plants currently account for more than 75% of Nigeria's
total installed capacity electricity (Adenikinju, 2018).
Outdated transmission and inefficient distribution

Outdated transmission and inefficient distribution
infrastructure
Another major constraint to electricity generation in

infrastructure
Another major constraint to electricity generation in
Nigeria is the deplorable state and ineffectiveness of the
transmission and distribution networks. In 2010, the 330
kV transmission circuit experienced 748 power outages,
while the 132 kV circuit experienced 4101 outages
(NERC, 2017). When the ratios of the various kinds of
outages experienced on both lines are compared, it is
clear that the forced and emergency outages outnumber
the scheduled outages on both lines. This was similar to
the previous year when 655 outages were reported on the
330kV circuit and 4149 power outages were recorded on
the 132kV circuits. This demonstrates that the outages
occur on an annual basis, exposing an underlying fault in
the transmission network. Further investigation into the
causes of partial and total grid failures from 1987 to 2022
revealed that: 78% of the failures experienced during this
period were caused by transmission faults, while the
remaining 22% of partial grid failures were caused by the

The implication of transmission failures and collapse is
severe damage and destruction of generation plants
because when the already transmitted electricity falls
back to the generation facilities, it causes a huge spark
and destruction in the plant, leading to a decrease in
production (Stephen, Ebele, Chukwunonso, and
Clement, 2017).
The Impact of the IPPs on Electricity Generation in

The Impact of the IPPs on Electricity Generation in
Nigeria

Like privatisation itself, the integration of independent
power producers into the national grid has significantly
ameliorated some of the challenges facing electricity
generation in Nigeria. First, it could be observed that
there was little or no impact from IPPs and NIPPs before
2013 when the first NIPPs were commissioned and IPPs
became integrated. As was shown in figures 2, tables 4
and 5, the overall performance of electricity generation
and power sent out drastically increased from 2015
following the integration of IPPs power plants into the
national grid. Compared to pre-2013, as shown in table
6, there were considerable improvements in the actual
electricity generated in Nigeria from 2014 upwards.
However, despite the significant increase in the actual
power generated, our finding shows that the challenges
of gas shortages and gas pipeline vandalism persist. The
main cause of gas-constrained energy generation is
pipeline destruction by militants in the oil-rich Niger
Delta region, where gas flaring occurs due to the federal
government's negligence in the region's development.
Facts about Electricity Generation in Nigeria

Facts about Electricity Generation in Nigeria
• Do you know that the generation companies

• Do you know that the generation companies
have an available capacity of about 8,100mw?
• Do you know that the transmission system can

• Do you know that the transmission system can
only transmit (transport) about 5,000mw?
• Do you know that there is a gap of more than

• Do you know that there is a gap of more than
2000MW between generation and transmission
infrastructural capability?
• Do you know that the distribution network is

infrastructural capability?
• Do you know that the distribution network is
only capable of absorbing about 4600 MW?
• Do you know that there is a gap of more than

• Do you know that there is a gap of more than
1,500MW between transmission and distribution
infrastructural capability?
• Do you know that there is a gap of nearly

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Conclusion
The need to maintain a cost effective, reliable and stable
power supply in Nigeria led the federal government of
Nigeria to outline a policy direction towards power
sector reform. In 2005, the reform act which provided the

• Do you know that if all the gas needed were
made available, Nigeria will have stranded generation of
about 4,000MW?
Conclusion

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pg. 50 after the privatisation.
In the light of the above findings and evidence as shown
in tables and figures the article recommends that: The
Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN), which is
100% owned by the government, should be
privatised/liberalised to enable private sector investment
and the expansion of transmission infrastructure. This, if
implemented, will help in evacuating stranded generated
electricity, and add more pool in the national grid. It is
equally important, judging by the achievement of the six
privatised power plants, that the assets of the ten NIPPs
and the newly built ones should be transferred to private
ownership through another round of privatisation.
Secondly that government should find lasting solution to
incessant gas pipeline vandalism which is disrupting gas
supply to the thermal power plants, thereby, preventing
optimal production to full capacity.

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