# Extracted text from kaduna_textile_effluents_yusuff.pdf

Global Nest: the Int. J. Vol 6, No 3, pp 212-221, 2004
Copyright© 2004 GLOBAL NEST
Printed in Greece. All rights reserved
CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES’ EFFLUENTS IN
KADUNA, NIGERIA AND POLLUTION IMPLICATIONS
R.O. YUSUFF1 1Department of Chemical Engineering
J.A. SONIBARE2,* Ladoke Akintola University
Ogbomoso. Nigeria
2Environmental Engineering Research Laboratory
Department of Chemical Engineering
Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile-Ife, Nigeria
*to whom all correspondence should be addressed:
Received: 2/6/2004 Tel.: + 234-08033837896
Accepted: 9/2/2005 e-mail: asonibar@oauife.edu.ng
ABSTRACT
Effluents from five major textile industries in Kaduna (Nigeria) were characterized for a proposed
central effluent treatment plant. Seven of the measured parameters exceeded the limit set by the
Federal Ministry of Environment. Colour intensity exceeded it in all the samples (Mills 1 – 5) by about
350 folds on the average while COD, TSS, NH , BOD , and S2- were by 24, 13, 8, 7 and 3 folds
3 5
respectively. TDS was detected in all samples with limit exceeded only in Mill 2. Nitrate, oil and
grease were detected in Mills 1 and 2 and within the limit. Al, Mn, and Zn were detected in 80% and
within the limit while Fe was detected in 60 %. Cu was detected in 80 % with limit exceeded about 3
folds on the average. The present study is focused on the pollution implications of these effluents from
textile operations in the city; important because of the risk of human exposure to them.
KEYWORDS: Textile mill, effluent, pollution, Kaduna, mitigation.
INTRODUCTION metals contained in these effluents (either in free
Industrial pollution is one of the problems form in the effluents or adsorbed in the
presently facing Nigeria and several efforts are suspended solids) from the industries have been
being vigorously pursued to control it in various found to be carcinogenic (Tamburlini et al.,
industries spanning length and breadth of the 2002) while other chemicals equally present are
country to see that Nigerians live in a disease- poisonous depending on the dose and exposure
free environment. Effluent generated by the duration (Kupchella and Hyland, 1989). These
industries is one of the sources of pollution. chemicals are not only poisonous to humans but
Contaminated air, soil, and water by effluents also found toxic to aquatic life (WHO, 2002) and
from the industries are associated with heavy they may result in food contamination (Novick,
disease burden (WHO, 2002) and this could be 1999).
part of the reasons for the current shorter life Ammonia is harmful to fish or other aquatic
expectancy in the country (WHO, 2003) when organisms at free (un-ionized) concentration of
compared to the developed nations. Some heavy 10 – 50 µg/l or higher pH and the sulphide in the

CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES’ EFFLUENTS 213
effluent are of environmental concern (WHO, Industrially, it is one of the most developed cities
2000) because they can lead to poor air quality of in Northern Nigeria and textile industries are
an area if not properly taken care of thus some of its dominating industries. It is on record
becoming threat to human, vegetation, and that the first textile industry in Nigeria was
materials. The same is applicable to pH that has established in this city (Jibrin, 2004) and this
been identified to raise health issue if water could be one of the reasons for its high
available for human use is not of the required population density (Olanrewaju, 2001), a reason
level (WHO, 1993). Textile industries are major for the importance of this study.
sources of these effluents (Ghoreishi and River Kaduna, a major river in the city receives
Haghighi, 2003) due to the nature of their the effluents from these industries. It does not
operations which requires high volume of water only run across the entire city but also, it is a
that eventually results in high wastewater major tributary of the Niger River (Gefu and
generation. They are one of the largest of water Kolawole, 2002), an indication of the extent to
users and polluters (Nemerow, 1978) which pollutants in the effluent can reach (Figure
Kaduna (Lat. 10.52 °N, Long 7.44 °E) located in 1). As a Northern Nigerian city, Kaduna is
Kaduna State occupies central portion of characterized with high evaporation during the
Northern Nigeria (Kaduna, 2004). Founded in long dry season. This could result in
1917 as an administrative headquarters of volatilization of chemicals in the effluents and
Northern Nigeria, it is presently one of the most release of heavy metals as particulates due to
important cities in the country. As at 1991 (the their adsorption on the effluents’ solids. Thus, air
last official census date in Nigeria) it had a quality around the banks of this River and the
population of 993,600 but currently projected to entire city could be negatively affected. This
be home to about 1,563,300 (TWG, 2004) calls for a proper treatment of effluents from the
people. Apart from presently being the industries to be sure that environmental
administrative headquarters of its state it has a indicators do not exceed the set limit at any point
high concentration of Federal Parastatals, in time.
Schools, and other public institutions.
Figure 1. Hydrological Map of Nigeria Indicating Kaduna River Basin (Ita, 1994)

214 YUSUFF and SONIBARE
The textile industry is distinguished by raw characteristics associated with these effluents
material used and this determines the volume of (Table 1). Specific water use varies from 60-400
water required for production as well as l/kg of fabric, depending on the type of fabric
wastewater generated. Production may be from (PRG, 1998; AEPA, 1998). Every process and
raw cotton, raw wool, and synthetic materials but operation within a textile dyeing and finishing
in Kaduna city, the five major industries studied plant has an environmental aspect that should be
are raw cotton-based. In this type of production, considered and for which environmental
slashing, bleaching, mercerizing, and dyeing are performance can potentially be improved. This is
the major consumption activities as well as in addition to the input of a wide rage of
wastewater generation (Figure 2). The nature of chemicals, which, if not contained in the final
the processing exerts a strong influence on the product, become waste treatment and disposal
potential impacts associated with textile problems.
manufacturing operations due to the different
Raw picked
cotton
Cleaning and
ginning
Carding and
spinning
Cotton yarn
Water pollutants
Slashing,
desizing,
BOD, SS, TDS, pH
rinsing,
scouring,
Blending with
Bleaching and
Polyester BOD, SS, TDS, pH
rinsing
Mercerizing
BOD, SS
Rinsing,
washing,
Colour, BOD, pH
dyeing, rinsing
Finishing
Figure 2. Cotton Fabric Production and Associated Water Pollutants

CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES’ EFFLUENTS 215
Table 1. Effluent Characteristics From Textile Industry
Process Effluent composition Nature
Sizing Starch, waxes, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), High in BOD, COD
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), wetting agents.
Desizing Starch, CMC, PVA, fats, waxes, pectins High in BOD, COD, SS, dissolved
solids (DS)
Bleaching Sodium hypochlorite, Cl , NaOH, H O , acids, High alkalinity, high SS
2 2 2
surfactants, NaSiO , sodium phosphate, short
3
cotton fibre.
Mercerizing Sodium hydroxide, cotton wax High pH, low BOD, high DS
Dyeing Dyestuffs urea, reducing agents, oxidizing agents, Strongly coloured, high BOD, DS,
acetic acid, detergents, wetting agents. low SS, heavy metals
Printing Pastes, urea, starches, gums, oils, binders, acids, Highly coloured, high BOD, oily
thickeners, cross-linkers, reducing agents, alkali. appearance, SS slightly alkaline, low
BOD
Source: PRG, 1998.
Key environmental issues associated with textile alkalinity-acidity, oils and grease, sulphides, and
manufacture are water use, treatment and coliform bacteria. FEPA (1991) also supported
disposal of aqueous effluent. The risk factors are these and demands for their proper monitoring in
primarily associated with the wet processes - the textile effluents in the country. Textile
scouring, desizing, mercerizing, bleaching, effluents are high in BOD due to fibre residues
dyeing and finishing. Desizing, scouring and and suspended solids (AEPA, 1998). They can
bleaching processes produce large quantities of contaminate water with oils, grease, and waxes
wastewater. Treatment for colour removal can (Akintunde, 1986) while some may contain
increase the risk pollution. For instance, treating heavy metals such as chromium, copper, zinc
azo-dyes results in production of amines which and mercury (EPA 1974). Dyeing process
could be a greater environmental risk than the usually contributes chromium, lead, zinc and
dye itself. copper to wastewater (Benavides, 1992). Copper
Villegas – Navarro et al. (2001) reported that is toxic to aquatic plants at concentrations below
textile effluents are foxier in terms of LC and 1.0 mg/l while concentration near this level can
50
exhibit very high toxicity with acute toxicity unit be toxic to some fish (Sawyer and McCarty,
(ATU) levels between 22 and 960. Dyes 1978).
contributed to overall toxicity at all process
stages. Also, dye baths could have high level of METHODOLOGY
BOD/COD, colour, toxicity, surfactants, fibres All field meters and equipment (Table 2) were
and turbidity, and may contain heavy metals checked and calibrated according to the
(AEPA, 1998). They generally constitute a small manufacturers specifications. The pH meter was
fraction of total liquid effluent, but may calibrated using HACH (1997) buffers of pH 4.0,
contribute a high proportion of total 7.0 and 10.0; TDS/conductivity/salinity meter
contaminants. Wynne et al. (2001) noted that was calibrated using the potassium chloride
textile effluents are highly coloured and saline, solution provided by the manufacturer (HACH,
contain non-biodegradable compounds, and are 1997); the spectrophotometers (HACH DR890
high in Biochemical and Chemical Oxygen and DR2010) were checked for malfunctioning
Demand (BOD, COD). They reported that the by passing standard solutions of all the
presence of metals and other dye compounds parameters to be measured; Blank samples (de-
inhibit microbial activity and some cases may ionized water) were passed between every three
cause failure of biological treatment system. measurements of effluent samples so as to check
EPA (1974) reported that the pollutional for any eventual contamination or abnormal
parameters in textile wastewater effluents are response of equipment. Reproducibility of results
suspended solids, BOD, COD, nitrogen, was regularly checked by carrying out periodic
phosphate, temperature, toxic chemicals analysis of aliquots collected from one sample.
(phenol), chromium and heavy metals, pH,

216 YUSUFF and SONIBARE
Table 2. Analytical Equipment and Materials Used in the Study
S/No Equipment Model Manufacturer Age
1 Spectrophotometer DR 890 HACH < 1 year
2 Spectrophotometer DR 2010 HACH 3 years
3 COD Digestion Reactor 45600 HACH 3 years
4 Conductivity Meter CO 150 HACH 3 years
5 pH Meter - HACH < 1 year
6 Dissolved Oxygen Meter 9071 Jenway 3 years
7 Water Sampler 1520-C20 0298 WILDCO 3 years
8 Electronic Balance WA 210 Rev-B Adam Equipment 3 years
9 Digital Titrator - HACH < 1 year
10 Incubator OV 160 C Genlab 3 years
11 Dessicator - - 3 years
12 Electromantel 10102315 Electrothermal 3 years
13 Water De-ionizer B 114 Elgacan 3 years
14 Water De-ionizer Catridge C 114 Elgacan -
15 Atomic Absorption ALPHA 4 ChemTech 3 years
Spectrophotometer Analytical Instr.
The fieldwork involved taking samples at points protection. Though all the textile mills had their
at which effluents discharge into drains for effluent temperatures between 26 and 35.7 OC
laboratory analyses. Two litres of each sample (Table 3) which are below the set limit by the
was taken in plastic containers and one litre per Federal Environment Protection Agency (FEPA,
sample was taken in bottles for oil and grease 1991), the pH range (10 – 11.5) calls for more
determination. The samples were taken during attention. These effluents were basic in nature.
the period of heaviest activity corresponding to The colours of all the effluents were several
the highest volume discharge and hence the times higher than the allowable limit of 7 Pt-Co.
worst situation. There was a need for sample They ranged from 612 – 4637 Pt-Co with
preservation and for all the parameters, HACH effluents from mills 1, 3 and 4 having values
(1997) recommended methods were used. above 2250 Pt-Co. With the exception of
In-situ measurements for some of the parameters wastewater from mill 2 that has a TDS
– pH and temperature - were carried out using concentration of 2200 mg/l the other effluents
portable HACH conductivity meter. had TDS levels within the acceptable limit of
Determination of other parameters (total 2000 mg/l. Though the total suspended solids
dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids levels in the effluent from mill 2 and mill 5 could
(TSS), colour, nitrate, ammonia, and sulphide) be acceptable, the effluents from the other mills
was carried out in the laboratory using the had TSS levels of more than eight folds of the
spectrophotometers. Heavy metal (aluminum, acceptable limit. Both measured BOD and COD
chromium, iron, zinc, manganese, and copper) levels also exceed the set limit by about three
determination was carried out using atomic and thirteen folds respectively. Apart from mills
absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). 2, 4 and 5, the sulphide levels in the effluents
For oil and grease concentration determination, were high (0.58 – 0.64 mg/l) as against the
gravimetrical method (APHA, 1998) was used standard limit of 0.2 mg/l. Ammonia levels
after solvent extraction with xylene. Chemical were high in all the effluents (1.82 – 2.72 mg/l)
oxygen demand (COD) was determined by the except in mill 4 that had a lower value of 0.05
dichromate digestion method while biochemical mg/l. Nutrients and micro-nutrients (nitrate, iron,
oxygen demand (BOD) was determined by the calcium and manganese) were all below the
dilution method. national standard. Oil and grease was detected in
the effluents from mills 1 and 2 and both were
RESULTS below the 6.0 mg/l national limit. With the
Generally the effluents characteristics need to be exception of copper, heavy metals concentrations
properly monitored for better environmental were below the set limits in all the effluents

CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES’ EFFLUENTS 217
Table 3. Physico-chemical Characteristics of Effluents from the Textile Mills
Parameter FMENV. Limit Mill 1 Mill 2 Mill 3 Mill 4 Mill 5
Flow rate (m3/day) 10,900 17,800 35,000 17,280 16,200
pH 6-9 10.21 11.23 11.04 11.53 10.47
Temperature (oC) 40 31.8 35.7 33.5 26.7 26.7
Colour (Pt-Co) 7 2275 612 3537 4637 968
TDS 2000 1130 2200 1480 848 250
TSS 30 245 35 471 1200 49
Sulphide 0.2 0.64 0.11 0.58 1.94 0.1
Free chlorine 1 0.01 0.01 1.14 1.06 0.76
COD 80 2120 1650 2430 2190 1067
BOD 50 227 382 645 242 163
5
Oil & Grease 10 6.0 8.3 ND ND ND
Dissolved Oxygen - 2.5 2.9 3.08 1.2 7.0
Nitrate 20 7.97 0.8 ND ND ND
Ammonia 0.2 1.82 2.01 1.28 0.05 2.72
Phosphate 5 3.42 0.09 2.63 0.74 0.36
Calcium 200 2.21 1.8 1.24 0.26 2.4
Magnesium 200 1.21 1.76 1.04 0.17 2.1
ND: Not Detected
Units in mg/l unless otherwise stated.
Table 4. Heavy Metal Concentrations in Kaduna City Textile Mills’ Effluents
Parameter FMENV. Limit Mill 1 Mill 2 Mill 3 Mill 4 Mill 5
Chromium < 0.1 ND ND ND ND 0.5
Aluminum <1.0 0.02 0.11 0.14 0.61 ND
Copper <1.0 1.96 2.04 1.16 5.14 ND
Manganese 5.0 0.35 1.65 1.18 0.3 ND
Iron 20.0 1.14 0.45 2.14 ND ND
Zinc <1.0 0.33 0.36 0.31 0.19 ND
Mercury 0.05 ND ND ND ND ND
(Table 4). Four of the wastewaters (mills 1, 2, 3 uninhabitable to gill-breathing aquatic
and 4) had copper levels range of between 1.96 organisms. Hydrogen sulphide is formed under
and 5.14 mg/l as against lower set (less than conditions of deficient oxygen in the presence of
1.00) limit. While chromium was not detected in organic materials and sulphate (WHO, 2000).
four of the textile effluents, mill 5 effluent had a This could be a possible reason for the high
value of 0.5 mg/l that was still below the sulphide measured in the effluents analyzed. The
standard. Mercury was not detected in all the high levels of BOD are indications of the
samples tested. pollution strength of the wastewaters. They also
indicate that there could be low oxygen available
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND AIR QUALITY for living organisms in the wastewater when
IMPLICATIONS utilizing the organic matter present. High COD
The most important measure of water quality is levels imply toxic condition and the presence of
the dissolved oxygen (Peirce et al., 1997). The biologically resistant organic substances (Sawyer
low level of DO recorded could result in the non- and McCarty, 1978). The settleable and
maintenance of conditions favourable to the suspended solids are high and this will affect the
aerobic organisms. This could lead to anaerobic operation and sizing of treatment units. Solids
organisms taking over with the resultant creation concentration is another important characteristic
of conditions making the water body of wastewater (Lee and Lin, 1999). High

218 YUSUFF and SONIBARE
Temperature (oC)
Wind speed (m/s)
Rainfall (cm)
30
20
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
sretemaraP
lacigoloroeteM
Figure 3. Typical Mean Monthly Temperature, Wind Speeds and Rain Fall in Kaduna Area
alkalinity increases with wastewater strength. It the coast to the Sahel in the North (Lae et al.,
shows the capacity of wastewaters to neutralize 2003). While high temperature increases
acids, and is undesirable. evaporation rate of wastewaters thus polluting
Heavy metals in the wastewaters could be of the air of an area, washout effect associated with
negative impact to the environment. Sekhar et al. rainfall (Jauregui and Luyando, 1999) which is
(2003) traced heavy metal contamination of an characterized by high precipitation, reduces air
area to industrial effluent. The negative impacts pollution. The two climatic conditions of the
from Kaduna textile mills effluents could be felt Northern Nigeria under which Kaduna city falls
as far as all the regions covered by the Kaduna is an indication that adequate efforts should be
River basin (Figure 1), the main receptor of these made to prevent air pollution. The natural
effluents. Adeniji and Mbague (1990) once cleansing of air pollution in the area could be
detected high heavy metal concentration in Jebba low due to low precipitation and associated high
and Kainji Lakes and Ita (1994) attributed this to wind speed (Figure 3) while the reverse is the
some industries along the rivers Niger and case for its air pollution inducing potential (due
Kaduna. The textile industries which are some of to high temperature). Akeredolu and Sonibare
the most active in the city (Kaduna) could be one (1997) once predicted lower ventilation
of the sources and this confirms the potential coefficient (a natural way of air pollution
dangers associated with high copper levels removal) for Kano, a neighboring city to
detected in the effluents analyzed. Kaduna.
In Nigeria, climate is determined primarily by Air pollution of the detected effluents’
the distance from the ocean to the secondary parameters could be in gaseous and particulates
elevation hills and as such, the temperature is form and the potential threat they pose to the
always warm and precipitation decreases from environment especially around River Kaduna

CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRIES’ EFFLUENTS 219
basins calls for stringent control measure. Of the addition to these are the products of reactions
five world air pollution episodes, three of them between some of the chemicals present in the
(1930, 1948, and 1952) happened around river- effluents (Soldan, 2003) which may be toxic to
banks (EPA, 2004) supported by temperature the environment. Removal of the pollutants from
inversions. these effluents is the only sure way of safer
Oil and grease, ammonia, sulphides, and colour, environment and this can be achieved by
are potential air pollution sources from these treatment to required level.
effluents. Meteorological conditions which
include wind speed and annual average CONCLUSIONS
temperature (EPA, 2002) are important factors. The qualities of effluents studied were grossly
At any temperature, liquids can evaporate due to below the set limits by the Federal Ministry of
higher kinetic energy of some molecules. These Environment in Nigeria and some world bodies
molecules with higher kinetic energy will be able like the World Health Organization in four of the
to escape the intermolecular attractive forces in five textile mills. The effluents are not uniform
the liquids and enter the gas phase. Evaporation in characteristics and this may make it extremely
increases as the liquid temperature increases due difficult to use a central effluent treatment plant
to the increased number of molecules with the as being proposed by the government. Lower
necessary kinetic energy level to escape. This levels of some of these parameters in Mill 5
confirms that high temperature of Kaduna city (with effluent treatment plant) when compared to
(Figure 3) especially during the long dry season the other four mills (with no effluent treatment
(Kaduna, 2004) could increase the potential of plant) indicate that a uniform characteristics is
the discharged effluents from the textile mills to attainable for or all the effluents if a measure of
pollute air in the environment. High colour treatment is introduced at Mill level. Lower
associated with these effluents should be levels of parameters could make the proposed
adequately treated before discharge. The impacts central treatment plant cheaper to maintain even
of temperature on diffusivities both in the air and at greater efficiency.
water (EPA 2001) could influence emissions of The results also show that air quality of the area
both ammonia and sulphides detected in the covered by the entire Kaduna river basin could
effluents while volatilization of oil and grease be negatively affected by both the gaseous
that could be induced by the same high emissions and particulates which could be
temperature could introduce organic compounds released from the effluents. Meteorological
into the environment thus polluting the air. conditions of the area are strong influencing
When the effluents are discharged into the river, factors. Rainfall appears in Kaduna around May
heavy metals present can be adsorbed on the and retreats in September (Odekunle, 2004). The
river’s soil and sediments and during the dry associated relatively high wind speed and low
season, water evaporation could expose them to temperature (Figure 3) during this period could
the environment. High TSS and TDS detected lower air pollution problems but the situation
could be attributed to the high colour (from the may not be the same for the longer dry season.
various dyestuffs being used in the textile mills) Incorporation of appropriate heavy metal
and they may be major sources of the heavy recovery in the proposed central effluent
metals. Increased heavy metals concentrations in treatment as proposed by Gaballah and Kilbertus
river sediments could increase suspended solids (1998) could be of great advantage for
concentrations (Kambole, 2003). During the dry environmental protection especially around the
season, the occasional dust re-suspension could river banks where animals do concentrate during
introduce these metals into the atmosphere along the dry season in the Northern part of Nigeria
with the particulates. With this, they could (Alawa et al., 2002), a region where Kaduna city
constitute health problems in form of air belongs. The impacts around these banks could
pollution. Some of the vapours formed above be much (since it is the final receiving point of
have great potential to nucleate thus becoming the effluents) if adequate measures are not taken
particulate problem to the environment. In before the final discharge.
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